26 Ibid., 7, 91-2. Ibid., 7, 91-2.
27 The inscription is translated in full in P. Y. Saeki, The inscription is translated in full in P. Y. Saeki, The Nestorian Doc.u.ments and Relics in China The Nestorian Doc.u.ments and Relics in China (2nd edn, Tokyo, 1951), 53-77, unfortunately not easy to access: an older and less accomplished translation can be found at (2nd edn, Tokyo, 1951), 53-77, unfortunately not easy to access: an older and less accomplished translation can be found at For useful comment on the political context of the stele, see M. Deeg, "The Rhetoric of Antiquity: Politico-religious Propaganda in the Nestorian Stele of Chang"an", Journal for Late Antique Religion and Culture Journal for Late Antique Religion and Culture, 1 (2007), 17-30, esp. 27-9. See also Baumer, 179-86. A new discovery of a Tang-era funerary pillar in the former eastern imperial capital of Luoyang in 2006 promises to tell us much more about Dyophysite Chinese Christianity in this era; we await Matteo Nicolini-Zani"s forthcoming article on it in Monumenta Serica Monumenta Serica, 2009, and I am grateful to him for sharing his findings with me in advance.
28 D. Scott, "Christian Responses to Buddhism in Pre-medieval Times", D. Scott, "Christian Responses to Buddhism in Pre-medieval Times", Numen Numen, 32 (1985), 88-100, esp. 92, 94, 96. For a translation of the texts and a different emphasis on their interpretation, see M. Palmer, The Jesus Sutras: Rediscovering the Lost Scrolls of Taoist Christianity The Jesus Sutras: Rediscovering the Lost Scrolls of Taoist Christianity (New York, 2001). (New York, 2001).
29 C. Humphrey and A. Hurelbaatar, "Regret as a Political Intervention: An Essay in the Historical Anthropology of the Early Mongols", C. Humphrey and A. Hurelbaatar, "Regret as a Political Intervention: An Essay in the Historical Anthropology of the Early Mongols", PP PP, 186 (February 2005), 3-46, at 9.
30 Baumer, 195-9; note the cross ill.u.s.trated at ibid., 196. Baumer, 195-9; note the cross ill.u.s.trated at ibid., 196.
31 Humphrey and Hurelbaatar, "Regret as a Political Intervention", 9n. Humphrey and Hurelbaatar, "Regret as a Political Intervention", 9n.
32 P. G. Borbone, "Syroturcica 1. The ongguds and the Syriac Language", in G. Kiraz (ed.), P. G. Borbone, "Syroturcica 1. The ongguds and the Syriac Language", in G. Kiraz (ed.), Malphono w-Rabo d-Malphone: Studies in Honor of Sebastian Brock Malphono w-Rabo d-Malphone: Studies in Honor of Sebastian Brock (Piscataway, 2008), n. 13. I am most grateful to Professor Borbone for providing me with an advance copy of this paper. See also Baumer, 199-211. (Piscataway, 2008), n. 13. I am most grateful to Professor Borbone for providing me with an advance copy of this paper. See also Baumer, 199-211.
33 I am indebted to Martin Palmer for our discussions on these possibilities. For a cautious a.s.sessment of the evidence, see Baumer, 220, and see Matteo Ricci"s account in 1605 of the near-disappearance - but only near-disappearance - of previous Christian activity: Koschorke et al. (eds.), 6-7. I am indebted to Martin Palmer for our discussions on these possibilities. For a cautious a.s.sessment of the evidence, see Baumer, 220, and see Matteo Ricci"s account in 1605 of the near-disappearance - but only near-disappearance - of previous Christian activity: Koschorke et al. (eds.), 6-7.
34 Jenkins, 122. Jenkins, 122.
35 Baumer, 223-7. Baumer, 223-7.
36 P. Jackson with D. Morgan (eds.), P. Jackson with D. Morgan (eds.), The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck: His Journey to the Court of Great Khan Mongke, 1253-1255 The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck: His Journey to the Court of Great Khan Mongke, 1253-1255 (Hakluyt Society, 2nd ser. 173, 1990). (Hakluyt Society, 2nd ser. 173, 1990).
37 Baumer, 205. Baumer, 205.
38 Jackson with Morgan (eds.), Jackson with Morgan (eds.), The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck, 239 [Ch. 34.7].
39 The authoritative account of these events is now P. Jackson, The authoritative account of these events is now P. Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410 The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410 (Harlow, 2005), 113-28. (Harlow, 2005), 113-28.
40 For caution in seeing Timur as particularly hostile to Christianity, see ibid., 246-7. For caution in seeing Timur as particularly hostile to Christianity, see ibid., 246-7.
41 S. P. Cowe, "The Armenians in the Era of the Crusades 1050-1350", in Angold (ed.), 404-29, at 424-9; Chadwick, 272-3. S. P. Cowe, "The Armenians in the Era of the Crusades 1050-1350", in Angold (ed.), 404-29, at 424-9; Chadwick, 272-3.
42 Jackson with Morgan (eds.), Jackson with Morgan (eds.), The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck, 208, and see ibid., 117 n. 4.
43 Baumer, 119, 164-8, 209, 230-33. Baumer, 119, 164-8, 209, 230-33.
44 Sundkler and Steed, 28-30. Sundkler and Steed, 28-30.
45 Jenkins, 109. Jenkins, 109.
46 Ibid., 98-9. Ibid., 98-9.
47 Crone and Cook, Crone and Cook, Hagarism Hagarism, 114. See also F. Micheau, "Eastern Christianities (Eleventh to Fourteenth Century): Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites", in Angold (ed.), 373-403,at 376, 384-6, 398.
48 Hastings, 65-7. On the Council of Ferrara-Florence, see pp. 492-3. Hastings, 65-7. On the Council of Ferrara-Florence, see pp. 492-3.
49 A. Hessayon, "Og, King of Bashan, Enoch and the Books of Enoch: Extra-canonical Texts and Interpretations of Genesis 6.1-4", in A. Hessayon and N. Keene (eds.), A. Hessayon, "Og, King of Bashan, Enoch and the Books of Enoch: Extra-canonical Texts and Interpretations of Genesis 6.1-4", in A. Hessayon and N. Keene (eds.), Scripture and Scholarship in Early Modern England Scripture and Scholarship in Early Modern England (Aldershot, 2006), at 20-21. See also p. 68. (Aldershot, 2006), at 20-21. See also p. 68.
50 A. Wroe, A. Wroe, Pilate: The Biography of an Invented Man Pilate: The Biography of an Invented Man (London, 1999), 3-6, 309-12, 341, 363 - 5. (London, 1999), 3-6, 309-12, 341, 363 - 5.
51 For scepticism about the foundational character of the Jerusalem a.s.sociations of Lalibela, see S. Munro-Hay, For scepticism about the foundational character of the Jerusalem a.s.sociations of Lalibela, see S. Munro-Hay, Ethiopia, the Unknown Land: A Cultural and Historical Guide Ethiopia, the Unknown Land: A Cultural and Historical Guide (London, 2002), 190-91. (London, 2002), 190-91.
52 Hastings, 21-2. Hastings, 21-2.
53 Munro-Hay, Munro-Hay, Ethiopia, the Unknown Land Ethiopia, the Unknown Land, 24.
54 S. Munro-Hay, S. Munro-Hay, The Quest for the Ark of the Covenant: The True History of the Tablets of Moses The Quest for the Ark of the Covenant: The True History of the Tablets of Moses (London, 2006), 82-7, although he is sceptical about the general opinion that the work is intended to boost the credentials of the Solomonic dynasty. (London, 2006), 82-7, although he is sceptical about the general opinion that the work is intended to boost the credentials of the Solomonic dynasty.
55 Munro-Hay, Munro-Hay, Ethiopia, the Unknown Land Ethiopia, the Unknown Land, 58.
56 Hastings, 28. Hastings, 28.
57 K. Ward, "Africa", in Hastings (ed.), 192-237, at 200. K. Ward, "Africa", in Hastings (ed.), 192-237, at 200.
58 Hastings, 31. Munro-Hay is sceptical about their exact age: Munro-Hay, Hastings, 31. Munro-Hay is sceptical about their exact age: Munro-Hay, Ethiopia, the Unknown Land Ethiopia, the Unknown Land, 191.
59 Hastings, 34-45, provides a fine account of the reign of Zar"a Ya"qob. Hastings, 34-45, provides a fine account of the reign of Zar"a Ya"qob.
60 Munro-Hay, Munro-Hay, Ethiopia, the Unknown Land Ethiopia, the Unknown Land, 54 and Pl. 1.
61 Jackson with Morgan (eds.), Jackson with Morgan (eds.), The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck, 122 [Ch. 17.2], and see also ibid., 5-6.
62 B. Wagner (ed.), B. Wagner (ed.), Die Die Epistola presbiteri Johannis Epistola presbiteri Johannis lateinisch und deutsch: uberlieferung, Textgeschichte, Rezeption under ubertragungen im Mittelalter lateinisch und deutsch: uberlieferung, Textgeschichte, Rezeption under ubertragungen im Mittelalter (Tubingen, 2000), esp. 14, 20-25, 132-49. (Tubingen, 2000), esp. 14, 20-25, 132-49.
PART IV: THE UNPREDICTABLE RISE OF ROME (300-1300).
9: The Making of Latin Christianity (300-500) 1 Further discussion of the word "Catholic" in MacCulloch, xix-xx. Further discussion of the word "Catholic" in MacCulloch, xix-xx.
2 Goodman, 550-52. On the basilican plan for churches, see pp. 197-9. Goodman, 550-52. On the basilican plan for churches, see pp. 197-9.
3 M. Webb, M. Webb, The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome: A Comprehensive Guide The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome: A Comprehensive Guide (Brighton and Portland, 2001), 240-45. (Brighton and Portland, 2001), 240-45.
4 J. R. Curran, J. R. Curran, Pagan City and Christian Capital: Rome in the Fourth Century Pagan City and Christian Capital: Rome in the Fourth Century (Oxford, 2000), 105-9. Recent excavations have revealed the footings of a substantial apse possibly of Constantinian date around St Paul"s shrine at San Paolo fuori le Mura, but the extent of the building is uncertain. (Oxford, 2000), 105-9. Recent excavations have revealed the footings of a substantial apse possibly of Constantinian date around St Paul"s shrine at San Paolo fuori le Mura, but the extent of the building is uncertain.
5 On the function of St Peter"s and the probable phases of construction, see R. R. Holloway, On the function of St Peter"s and the probable phases of construction, see R. R. Holloway, Constantine and Rome Constantine and Rome (New Haven and London, 2004), 79-82. (New Haven and London, 2004), 79-82.
6 J. Curran, "Jerome and the Sham Christians of Rome", J. Curran, "Jerome and the Sham Christians of Rome", JEH JEH, 48 (1997), 213-29,at 217.
7 S. Lunn-Rockliffe, "Ambrose"s Imperial Funeral Sermons", S. Lunn-Rockliffe, "Ambrose"s Imperial Funeral Sermons", JEH JEH, 59 (2008), 191-207, at 195n.
8 Doig, 41-2; see p. 160. Doig, 41-2; see p. 160.
9 C. Morris, C. Morris, The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West from the Beginning to 1600 The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West from the Beginning to 1600 (Oxford, 2005), 31-8. (Oxford, 2005), 31-8.
10 Holloway, Holloway, Constantine and Rome Constantine and Rome, 73-6; Doig, 42-4.
11 Stevenson (ed., 1989), 71, 142-3. Stevenson (ed., 1989), 71, 142-3.
12 Curran, Curran, Pagan City and Christian Capital Pagan City and Christian Capital, 148-57.
13 H. Inglebert, H. Inglebert, Les Romains chretiens face a l"histoire de Rome: Histoire, christianisme et romanites en Occident dans l"Antiquite tardive (IIIe-Ve siecles) Les Romains chretiens face a l"histoire de Rome: Histoire, christianisme et romanites en Occident dans l"Antiquite tardive (IIIe-Ve siecles) (Paris, 1996), 197-9. (Paris, 1996), 197-9.
14 Optatus, Bishop of Mileu or Milevis: Chadwick, 31. Optatus, Bishop of Mileu or Milevis: Chadwick, 31.
15 Jerome, Jerome, Epistolae Epistolae XLV.3, qu. R. J. Goodrich, " XLV.3, qu. R. J. Goodrich, "Vir maxime Catholicus: Sulpicius Severus" Use and Abuse of Jerome in the Dialogi Dialogi", JEH JEH, 58 (2007), 189-210, at 190. For Jerome"s ministry in Rome and its abrupt termination, see Curran, "Jerome and the Sham Christians of Rome".
16 Jerome, Preface to Job, qu. M. H. Williams, Jerome, Preface to Job, qu. M. H. Williams, The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship (Chicago and London, 2006), 167. (Chicago and London, 2006), 167.
17 Ibid., esp. 1-5, 131, 167-9, 200. On Gerasimos, Dalrymple, 296-7. Ibid., esp. 1-5, 131, 167-9, 200. On Gerasimos, Dalrymple, 296-7.
18 M. R. Salzman, M. R. Salzman, The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2002), 208. (Cambridge, MA, 2002), 208.
19 R. Finn, R. Finn, Almsgiving in the Later Roman Empire: Christian Promotion and Practice 313-450 Almsgiving in the Later Roman Empire: Christian Promotion and Practice 313-450 (Oxford, 2006), esp. 165-6, 184-8. (Oxford, 2006), esp. 165-6, 184-8.
20 E. Bourne, "The Messianic Prophecy in Vergil"s Fourth Eclogue", E. Bourne, "The Messianic Prophecy in Vergil"s Fourth Eclogue", Cla.s.sical Journal Cla.s.sical Journal, II (1916), 390-400.
21 S. McGill, S. McGill, Virgil Recomposed: The Mythological and Secular Centos in Antiquity Virgil Recomposed: The Mythological and Secular Centos in Antiquity (Oxford, 2005), XV, 155 n. 17, 162 n. 3. (Oxford, 2005), XV, 155 n. 17, 162 n. 3.
22 Cf., e.g., Cf., e.g., New English Hymnal New English Hymnal, 613; excerpts from "Da puer plectrum, ch.o.r.eis ut canam fidelibus", Cathemerinon Cathemerinon IX: H. J. Thomson (ed.), IX: H. J. Thomson (ed.), Prudentius with an English Translation Prudentius with an English Translation (2 vols., Loeb edn, London and Cambridge, MA, 1949), I, 76 [ll. 10ff., etc.]. (2 vols., Loeb edn, London and Cambridge, MA, 1949), I, 76 [ll. 10ff., etc.].
23 Ibid., II, 10-14; I, 154-5 [ Ibid., II, 10-14; I, 154-5 [Contra orationem Symmachi II, 62-4; Apotheosis Apotheosis, ll. 449-54; slightly altered].
24 Stevenson (ed., 1989), 120. Stevenson (ed., 1989), 120.
25 Ibid., 132-4. Ibid., 132-4.
26 Ibid., 135-9. Ibid., 135-9.
27 Lunn-Rockliffe, "Ambrose"s Imperial Funeral Sermons", esp. at 205. Lunn-Rockliffe, "Ambrose"s Imperial Funeral Sermons", esp. at 205.
28 For a crisp and fairly minimalist summary of Augustine"s knowledge of Greek, see G. Bonner, For a crisp and fairly minimalist summary of Augustine"s knowledge of Greek, see G. Bonner, Saint Augustine of Hippo: Life and Controversies Saint Augustine of Hippo: Life and Controversies (2nd edn, Norwich, 1963), 394 - 5. (2nd edn, Norwich, 1963), 394 - 5.
29 R. S. Pine-Coffin (ed.), R. S. Pine-Coffin (ed.), Saint Augustine: Confessions Saint Augustine: Confessions (London, 1961), 72 [IV.2]. (London, 1961), 72 [IV.2].
30 Ibid., 131 [VII.15]; see comment in P. Brown, Ibid., 131 [VII.15]; see comment in P. Brown, Augustine of Hippo: A Biography Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (London, 1969), 62-3, 88-90. (London, 1969), 62-3, 88-90.
31 Pine-Coffin (ed.), Pine-Coffin (ed.), Saint Augustine: Confessions Saint Augustine: Confessions, 177-8 [VIII.12].
32 Ibid., 178-9 [VIII.12]. Ibid., 178-9 [VIII.12].
33 Ibid., 167-8 [VIII.6]. Ibid., 167-8 [VIII.6].
34 It is worth pondering the opinion of Bonner, It is worth pondering the opinion of Bonner, Saint Augustine of Hippo Saint Augustine of Hippo, 3, contemplating the selfish intellectual Augustine revealed in the Confessions Confessions: "It could fairly be maintained that whatever in Augustine"s character may be called sanct.i.ty was the result of his enforced ordination."
35 Augustine, Augustine, Enarratio in Psalmum Enarratio in Psalmum 57, 15, qu. Chadwick, 31. 57, 15, qu. Chadwick, 31.
36 The traditional picture of Donatist "circ.u.mcellion" fanaticism and violence is likely to be largely a literary construction of the victorious Catholics: see B. D. Shaw, "Who Were the Circ.u.mcellions?", in A. H. Merrills (ed.), The traditional picture of Donatist "circ.u.mcellion" fanaticism and violence is likely to be largely a literary construction of the victorious Catholics: see B. D. Shaw, "Who Were the Circ.u.mcellions?", in A. H. Merrills (ed.), Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa (Aldershot, 2004), 227-57. (Aldershot, 2004), 227-57.
37 Luke 14.23: Augustine to Bishop Vincentius, qu. Stevenson (ed., 1989), 220-22. Luke 14.23: Augustine to Bishop Vincentius, qu. Stevenson (ed., 1989), 220-22.
38 H. Bettenson and D. Knowles (eds.), H. Bettenson and D. Knowles (eds.), Augustine: Concerning the City of G.o.d against the Pagans Augustine: Concerning the City of G.o.d against the Pagans (London, 1967), 440 [XI.9], and 479-80 [XII.7]. (London, 1967), 440 [XI.9], and 479-80 [XII.7].
39 For one careful Christian critique of Augustine, see J. Hick, For one careful Christian critique of Augustine, see J. Hick, Evil and the G.o.d of Love Evil and the G.o.d of Love (2nd edn, London, 1977), 38-89, esp. at 53-8. (2nd edn, London, 1977), 38-89, esp. at 53-8.
40 Bettenson and Knowles (eds.), Bettenson and Knowles (eds.), Augustine Augustine, 593 [XIV.28].
41 Quotation ibid., 596 [XV.1]. For such identifications, see ibid., 335, 524, 920 [VIII.24; XIII.16; XX.11]. Quotation ibid., 596 [XV.1]. For such identifications, see ibid., 335, 524, 920 [VIII.24; XIII.16; XX.11].
42 There has been much discussion of Pelagius"s origins, but Augustine himself calls him "Brittonem": Frend, 694 n. 161. There has been much discussion of Pelagius"s origins, but Augustine himself calls him "Brittonem": Frend, 694 n. 161.
43 See the useful discussion of the context in Curran, "Jerome and the Sham Christians of Rome". See the useful discussion of the context in Curran, "Jerome and the Sham Christians of Rome".
44 Stevenson (ed., 1989), 232-3. Stevenson (ed., 1989), 232-3.
45 S. Thier, S. Thier, Kirche bei Pelagius Kirche bei Pelagius ( (Patristische Texte und Studien, 50, Berlin and New York, 1999), 322.
46 Compare the thinking of another opponent of Augustine in a later age, Desiderius Erasmus: see pp. 600-601. Compare the thinking of another opponent of Augustine in a later age, Desiderius Erasmus: see pp. 600-601.
47 A point made by Bonner, A point made by Bonner, Saint Augustine of Hippo Saint Augustine of Hippo, 4.
48 Stevenson (ed., 1989), 236. Stevenson (ed., 1989), 236.
49 Ibid., 238-9. Bonner, Ibid., 238-9. Bonner, Saint Augustine of Hippo Saint Augustine of Hippo, 378, points to the catalogue of such phrases in O. Rottmanner, Der Augustinismus. Eine dogmengeschichtliche Studie Der Augustinismus. Eine dogmengeschichtliche Studie (Munich, 1892), 8. (Munich, 1892), 8.
50 Bonner, Bonner, Saint Augustine of Hippo Saint Augustine of Hippo, 392.
51 On Julian and Augustine, see Brown, On Julian and Augustine, see Brown, Augustine of Hippo Augustine of Hippo, 381-97.
52 Bettenson and Knowles (eds.), Bettenson and Knowles (eds.), Augustine Augustine, 304-15 [VIII.5-15]; quotation at 313 [VIII.10].
53 Salzman, Salzman, The Making of a Christian Aristocracy The Making of a Christian Aristocracy, 211-13.
54 Bettenson and Knowles (eds.), Bettenson and Knowles (eds.), Augustine Augustine, 1033-48 [XXII.8-10]; for a fine treatment of this theme, see P. Brown, The Cult of the Saints The Cult of the Saints (Chicago, 1981), esp. 55-64. (Chicago, 1981), esp. 55-64.
55 J. Lossl, "Augustine in Byzantium", J. Lossl, "Augustine in Byzantium", JEH JEH, 51 (2000), 267-95, at 270-71; on Augustine"s ignorance of the Council of Constantinople, Chadwick, 27.
56 J. Burnaby (ed.), J. Burnaby (ed.), Augustine: Later Works Augustine: Later Works ( (Library of Christian Cla.s.sics VIII, 1955), 71, 88 [De Trinitate IX.18; X.18]. IX.18; X.18].
57 Ibid., 85 [ Ibid., 85 [De Trinitate X.13]. X.13].
58 Ibid., 157 [ Ibid., 157 [De Trinitate XV.27]. XV.27].
59 L.-J. Bord, L.-J. Bord, Histoire de l"abbaye Saint-Martin de Liguge 361-2001 Histoire de l"abbaye Saint-Martin de Liguge 361-2001 (Paris, 2005), Ch. 2, argues persuasively that Liguge was from its beginnings monastic in character and not simply a hermitage for Martin. (Paris, 2005), Ch. 2, argues persuasively that Liguge was from its beginnings monastic in character and not simply a hermitage for Martin.
60 F. R. h.o.a.re (ed.), F. R. h.o.a.re (ed.), The Western Fathers: Being the Lives of SS. Martin of Tours, Ambrose, Augustine of Hippo, Honoratus of Arles and Germa.n.u.s of Auxerre The Western Fathers: Being the Lives of SS. Martin of Tours, Ambrose, Augustine of Hippo, Honoratus of Arles and Germa.n.u.s of Auxerre (London, 1954), 27 [Sulpicius Severus, (London, 1954), 27 [Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini Vita Martini, 13]. For comment on the contemporary controversy around Sulpicius, see Goodrich, "Vir maxime Catholicus", 191-3. Martin"s first monastic settlement at Liguge may have been accompanied by the first of his destructions of a cultic building on the site: see Bord, Histoire de l"abbaye Saint-Martin de Liguge Histoire de l"abbaye Saint-Martin de Liguge, 23-9, 38-9.
61 Ibid., 44, 49-51. Ibid., 44, 49-51.