[Footnote 1: [email protected] holds that both validity and invalidity of any cognition depend upon the cognitive state itself and not on correspondence with external facts or objects ([email protected] [email protected]@m [email protected] [email protected]@m_). The contribution of [email protected] to the doctrine of inference is not definitely known. What little Vacaspati says on the subject has been borrowed from Vatsyayana such as the _purvavat, [email protected]_ and [email protected]@ta_ types of inference, and these may better be consulted in our chapter on Nyaya or in the [email protected]_ of Vacaspati.
[email protected] inference was probably from particular to particular on the ground of seven kinds of relations according to which they had seven kinds of inference "[email protected]@h.
[email protected] [email protected]@m saptadhanuma_" ([email protected]_, p.
109). [email protected] definition of inference as given by Udyotakara (I.I. V) is "_sambandhadekasmat [email protected]@sasiddhiranumanam_."]
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cognitive states such as are generated by perception, inference and scriptural testimony), (2) _viparyaya_ (false knowledge, illusion, etc.), (3) _vikalpa_ (abstraction, construction and different kinds of imagination), (4) _nidra_ (sleep, is a vacant state of mind, in which tamas tends to predominate), (5) [email protected]_ (memory).
These states of mind ([email protected]_) comprise our inner experience.
When they lead us towards [email protected] into the course of pa.s.sions and their satisfactions, they are said to be [email protected]@ta_ (afflicted or leading to affliction); when they lead us towards liberation, they are called [email protected]@ta_ (unafflicted). To whichever side we go, towards [email protected] or towards mukti, we have to make use of our states of mind; the states which are bad often alternate with good states, and whichever state should tend towards our final good (liberation) must be regarded as good.
This draws attention to that important characteristic of citta, that it sometimes tends towards good (i.e. liberation) and sometimes towards bad ([email protected]). It is like a river, as the [email protected] says, which flows both ways, towards sin and towards the good. The teleology of [email protected] requires that it should produce in man the [email protected] as well as the liberation tendency.
Thus in accordance with it in the midst of many bad thoughts and bad habits there come good moral will and good thoughts, and in the midst of good thoughts and habits come also bad thoughts and vicious tendencies. The will to be good is therefore never lost in man, as it is an innate tendency in him which is as strong as his desire to enjoy pleasures. This point is rather remarkable, for it gives us the key of Yoga ethics and shows that our desire of liberation is not actuated by any hedonistic attraction for happiness or even removal of pain, but by an innate tendency of the mind to follow the path of liberation [Footnote ref 1]. Removal of pains
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[Footnote 1: [email protected] however makes the absolute and complete destruction of three kinds of sorrows, _adhyatmika_ (generated internally by the illness of the body or the unsatisfied pa.s.sions of the mind), _adhibhautika_ (generated externally by the injuries inflicted by other men, beasts, etc.) and _adhidaivika_ (generated by the injuries inflicted by demons and ghosts) the object of all our endeavours ([email protected]_).]
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is of course the concomitant effect of following such a course, but still the motive to follow this path is a natural and irresistible tendency of the mind. Man has power (_s"akti_) stored up in his citta, and he has to use it in such a way that this tendency may gradually grow stronger and stronger and ultimately uproot the other. He must succeed in this, since [email protected] wants liberation for her final realization [Footnote ref 1].
Yoga Purificatory Practices (Parikarma).
The purpose of Yoga meditation is to steady the mind on the gradually advancing stages of thoughts towards liberation, so that vicious tendencies may gradually be more and more weakened and at last disappear altogether. But before the mind can be fit for this lofty meditation, it is necessary that it should be purged of ordinary impurities. Thus the intending yogin should practise absolute non-injury to all living beings ([email protected]_), absolute and strict truthfulness (_satya_), non-stealing (_asteya_), absolute s.e.xual restraint (_brahmacarya_) and the acceptance of nothing but that which is absolutely necessary (_aparigraha_).
These are collectively called _yama_. Again side by side with these abstinences one must also practise external cleanliness by ablutions and inner cleanliness of the mind, contentment of mind, the habit of bearing all privations of heat and cold, or keeping the body unmoved and remaining silent in speech (_tapas_), the study of philosophy (_svadhyaya_) and meditation on is"vara ([email protected]_). These are collectively called _niyamas_.
To these are also to be added certain other moral disciplines such as [email protected], maitri, [email protected], mudita_ and [email protected]_.
[email protected] means that whenever a bad thought (e.g. selfish motive) may come one should practise the opposite good thought (self-sacrifice); so that the bad thoughts may not find any scope.
Most of our vices are originated by our unfriendly relations with our fellow-beings. To remove these the practice of mere abstinence may not be sufficient, and therefore one should habituate the mind to keep itself in positive good relations with our fellow-beings. The practice of maitri means to think of all beings as friends. If we continually habituate ourselves to think this, we can never be displeased with them. So too one should practise [email protected] or kindly feeling for sufferers, mudita
[Footnote 1: See my "_Yoga Psychology_," _Quest_, October, 1921.]
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or a feeling of happiness for the good of all beings, and [email protected] or a feeling of equanimity and indifference for the vices of others.
The last one indicates that the yogin should not take any note of the vices of vicious men.
When the mind becomes disinclined to all worldly pleasures (_vairagya_) and to all such as are promised in heaven by the performances of Vedic sacrifices, and the mind purged of its dross and made fit for the practice of Yoga meditation, the yogin may attain liberation by a constant practice (_abhyasa_) attended with faith, confidence (_s"raddha_), strength of purpose and execution (_virya_) arid wisdom (_prajna_) attained at each advance.
The Yoga Meditation.
When the mind has become pure the chances of its being ruffled by external disturbances are greatly reduced. At such a stage the yogin takes a firm posture (_asana_) and fixes his mind on any object he chooses. It is, however, preferable that he should fix it on is"vara, for in that case is"vara being pleased removes many of the obstacles in his path, and it becomes easier for him to attain success. But of course he makes his own choice, and can choose anything he likes for the unifying concentration (_samadhi_) of his mind. There are four states of this unifying concentration namely _vitarka, vicara, ananda_ and _asmita_. Of these vitarka and vicara have each two varieties, _savitarka, nirvitarka, savicara, nirvicara_ [Footnote ref 1]. When the mind concentrates on objects, remembering their names and qualities, it is called the savitarka stage; when on the five tanmatras with a remembrance of their qualities it is called savicara, and when it is one with the tanmatras without any notion of their qualities it is called nirvicara.
Higher than these are the ananda and the asmita states. In the ananda state the mind concentrates on the buddhi with its functions of the senses causing pleasure. In the asmita stage buddhi concentrates on pure substance as divested of all modifications.
In all these stages there are objects on which the mind consciously concentrates, these are therefore called the _samprajnata_ (with knowledge of objects) types of samadhi. Next to this comes the last stage of samadhi called the _asamprajnata_ or nirodha samadhi, in which the mind is without any object. By remaining
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[Footnote 1: Vacaspati, however, thinks that ananda and asmita have also two other varieties, which is denied by [email protected]]
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long in this stage the old potencies ([email protected]) or impressions due to the continued experience of worldly events tending towards the objective world or towards any process of experiencing inner thinking are destroyed by the production of a strong habit of the nirodha state. At this stage dawns the true knowledge, when the buddhi becomes as pure as the [email protected], and after that the citta not being able to bind the [email protected] any longer returns back to [email protected]
In order to practise this concentration one has to see that there may be no disturbance, and the yogin should select a quiet place on a hill or in a forest. One of the main obstacles is, however, to be found in our constant respiratory action. This has to be stopped by the practice of [email protected]_. [email protected] consists in taking in breath, keeping it for a while and then giving it up. With practice one may retain breath steadily for hours, days, months and even years. When there is no need of taking in breath or giving it out, and it can be retained steady for a long time, one of the main obstacles is removed.
The process of practising concentration is begun by sitting in a steady posture, holding the breath by [email protected], excluding all other thoughts, and fixing the mind on any object ([email protected]_).
At first it is difficult to fix steadily on any object, and the same thought has to be repeated constantly in the mind, this is called _dhyana._ After sufficient practice in dhyana the mind attains the power of making itself steady; at this stage it becomes one with its object and there is no change or repet.i.tion. There is no consciousness of subject, object or thinking, but the mind becomes steady and one with the object of thought. This is called _samadhi_ [Footnote ref 1]. We have already described the six stages of samadhi. As the yogin acquires strength in one stage of samadhi, he pa.s.ses on to a still higher stage and so on. As he progresses onwards he attains miraculous powers (_vibhuti_) and his faith and hope in the practice increase. Miraculous powers bring with them many temptations, but the yogin is firm of purpose and even though the position of Indra is offered to him he does not relax.
His wisdom (_prajna_) also increases at each step. Prajna knowledge is as clear as perception, but while perception is limited to
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[Footnote 1: It should be noted that the word _samadhi_ cannot properly be translated either by "concentration" or by "meditation." It means that peculiar kind of concentration in the Yoga sense by which the mind becomes one with its object and there is no movement of the mind into its pa.s.sing states.]
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certain gross things and certain gross qualities [Footnote ref 1] prajna has no such limitations, penetrating into the subtlest things, the tanmatras, the [email protected], and perceiving clearly and vividly all their subtle conditions and qualities [Footnote ref 2]. As the potencies ([email protected]_) of the prajna wisdom grow in strength the potencies of ordinary knowledge are rooted out, and the yogin continues to remain always in his prajna wisdom. It is a peculiarity of this prajna that it leads a man towards liberation and cannot bind him to [email protected]
The final prajnas which lead to liberation are of seven kinds, namely, (1) I have known the world, the object of suffering and misery, I have nothing more to know of it. (2) The grounds and roots of [email protected] have been thoroughly uprooted, nothing more of it remains to be uprooted. (3) Removal has become a fact of direct cognition by inhibitive trance. (4) The means of knowledge in the shape of a discrimination of [email protected] from [email protected] has been understood. The other three are not psychological but are rather metaphysical processes a.s.sociated with the situation. They are as follows: (5) The double purpose of buddhi experience and emanc.i.p.ation (_bhoga_ and _apavarga_) has been realized. (6) The strong gravitating tendency of the disintegrated [email protected] drives them into [email protected] like heavy stones dropped from high hill tops.
(7) The buddhi disintegrated into its const.i.tuents the [email protected] become merged in the [email protected] and remain there for ever. The [email protected] having pa.s.sed beyond the bondage of the [email protected] shines forth in its pure intelligence. There is no bliss or happiness in this [email protected] mukti, for all feeling belongs to [email protected] It is thus a state of pure intelligence. What the [email protected] tries to achieve through knowledge, Yoga achieves through the perfected discipline of the will and psychological control of the mental states.
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[Footnote 1: The limitations which baffle perception are counted in the _Karika_ as follows: Extreme remoteness (e.g. a lark high up in the sky), extreme proximity (e.g. collyrium inside the eye), loss of sense-organ (e.g. a blind man), want of attention, extreme smallness of the object (e.g. atoms), obstruction by other intervening objects (e.g. by walls), presence of superior lights (the star cannot be seen in daylight), being mixed up with other things of its own kind (e.g. water thrown into a lake).]
[Footnote 2: Though all things are but the modifications of [email protected] yet the real nature of the [email protected] is never revealed by the sense knowledge. What appears to the senses are but illusory characteristics like those of magic (maya):
"[email protected] [email protected] rupam na [email protected]@[email protected]@rcchati Yattu [email protected]@tipatham praptam tanmayeva sutucchakam._"
[email protected]_, IV. 13.
The real nature of the [email protected] is thus revealed only by _prajna._]
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CHAPTER VIII
THE [email protected] PHILOSOPHY
Criticism of Buddhism and [email protected] from the Nyaya standpoint.
The Buddhists had upset all common sense convictions of substance and attribute, cause and effect, and permanence of things, on the ground that all collocations are momentary; each group of collocations exhausts itself in giving rise to another group and that to another and so on. But if a collocation representing milk generates the collocation of curd it is said to be due to a joint action of the elements forming the cause-collocation and the _modus operandi_ is unintelligible; the elements composing the cause-collocation cannot separately generate the elements composing the effect-collocation, for on such a supposition it becomes hard to maintain the doctrine of momentariness as the individual and separate exercise of influence on the part of the cause-elements and their coordination and manifestation as effect cannot but take more than one moment.