_Myths and Folk-Tales of Russians, Western Slavs, and Magyars._ Jeremiah Curtin.
_Cossack Fairy-Tales._ R. Nisbet Bain.
_Sixty Folk-Tales from Exclusively Slavonic Sources._ A. H.
Wratislaw.
_Russian Fairy-Tales._ R. Nisbet Bain.
_Fairy-Tales of the Slav Peasants and Herdsmen._ From the French of Alexander Chodsko.
_Songs of the Russian People and Russian Folk-Tales._ W. R. S.
Ralston.
_Slavonic Fairy-Tales._ M. Gastner.
_Slavonic Literature and its Relations to the Folk-Lore of Europe._ M. Gastner.
_Russian Folk-Songs as Sung by the People._ Mme. Eugenie Lineff.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] A Tatar word, signifying "tower"; used to mean the part of the house where the women were secluded, in Oriental fashion.
[2] Lord, in the original, is Gosudar, the word which, with a capital, is applied especially to the emperor.
[3] The dramatist Ostrovsky has made effective use of this game, and the more prophetic couplets of the song, in his famous play: "Poverty is not a Vice." Other national customs and songs are used in his play.
CHAPTER II
THE ANCIENT PERIOD, FROM THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY TO THE TATaR DOMINION, 988-1224.
As soon as Prince Saint Vladimir introduced Christianity into Russia, he and his sons began to busy themselves with the problem of general education. Priests came from Greece and Bulgaria to spread the Gospel in Russia; but they thought only of disseminating Christianity, and were, moreover, not sufficiently numerous to grapple with educational problems. Accordingly, Vladimir founded schools in Kieff, and ordered that the children of the best citizens should be taken from their unwilling parents, and handed over to these schools for instruction. His son, Yaroslaff I. ("the wise"), pursued the same policy, in Kieff and elsewhere--the schools being attached to the churches, and having for their chief object the preparation of ecclesiastics. The natural result was, that in ancient Russia, most people who could read and write were ecclesiastics or monks, and religious literature was that most highly prized. Even so-called worldly literature was strongly tinctured with religion. The first Russian literary compositions took the form of exhortations, sermons, and messages addressed by the clergy to their flocks, and the first Russian authors were Ilarion, metropolitan of Kieff (beginning in 1051), and Luka Zhidyata, appointed bishop of Novgorod in 1036. The latter"s "Exhortation to the Brethren" has come down to us, and is noteworthy for the simplicity of its language, and its conciseness of form. From Ilarion we have, "a Word Concerning the Law" (meaning, the Law of G.o.d), which deals with the opposing character of Judaism and Christianity. It proves not only that he was a cultivated man, capable of expressing himself clearly on complicated matters, but also that his hearers were capable of comprehending him. Other good writers of that period were: Feodosiy, elected in 1062, abbott of the Monastery of the Catacombs in Kieff (which was fated to become one of the most important nurseries of enlightenment and literature in Russia); Nestor, who left a remarkable "Life of Feodosiy"; Nikifor, a Greek by birth, educated in Byzantium, who was metropolitan of Kieff, 1104-1121; and Kyrill, bishop of Novgorod, 1171-1182.
Thus, it will be seen, events took their ordinary course in Russia as in other countries: learning was, for a long time, confined almost exclusively to the monasteries, which were the pioneers in education and culture elements, such as they were. Naturally the bulk of the literature for a long time consisted of commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, translations from the works of the fathers of the church (Eastern Catholic), homilies, pastoral letters, and the like. But in the monasteries, also, originated the invaluable Chronicles; for not only did men speedily begin to describe in writing those phenomena of life which impressed them as worthy of note, but ecclesiastics were in a position to learn all details of importance from authoritative sources, and were even, not infrequently, employed as diplomatic agents, or acted as secretaries to the ruling princes. The earliest and most celebrated among these ancient Russian historical works is the Chronicle of Nestor, a monk of the Catacombs Monastery in Kieff (born about 1056), the reputed author of the doc.u.ment which bears his name. Modern scientists have proved that he did not write this Chronicle, the earliest copy of which dates from the fourteenth century, but its standing as a priceless monument of the twelfth century has never been impunged, since it is evident that the author gathered his information from contemporary eye-witnesses. The Chronicle begins by describing how Shem, Ham, and j.a.phet shared the earth between them after the flood, and gives a detailed list of the countries and peoples of the ancient world.
It then states that, after the building of the Tower of Babel, G.o.d dispersed all the peoples into seventy-two tribes (or languages), the northern and western lands falling to the tribe of j.a.phet. Nestor derives the Slavonians from j.a.phet--describes their life, first on the banks of the Danube, then their colonization to the northeast as far as the River ilmen (the ancient Novgorod), the Oka, in central Russia, and the tributaries of the Dniepr, delineating the manners and customs of the different Slavonic tribes, and bringing the narrative down to the year 1110, in the form of brief, complete stories. The style of the Chronicle is simple and direct. For example, he relates how, in the year 945, the Drevlyans (or forest-folk) slew igor, prince of Kieff, and his band of warriors, who were not numerous.
Then said the Drevlyans, "Here we have slain the Russian Prince; let us now take his wife, Olga, for our Prince Malo; and we will take also Svyatoslaff (his son), and will deal with him as we see fit"; and the Drevlyans dispatched their best men, twenty in number, in a boat, to Olga, and they landed their boat near Boritcheff, and Olga was told that the Drevlyans had arrived, and Olga summoned them to her. "Good guests are come, I hear"; and the Drevlyans said: "We are come, Princess." And Olga said to them, "Tell me, why are ye come hither?" Said the Drevlyans: "The land of the Drevlyans hath sent us," saying thus: "We have slain thy husband, for thy husband was like unto a wolf, he was ever preying and robbing; but our own princes are good. Our Drevlyan land doth flourish under their sway; wherefore, marry thou our Prince, Malo" for the Drevlyan Prince was named Malo. Olga said to them: "Your speech pleaseth me, for my husband cannot be raised from the dead; but I desire to show you honor, to-morrow, before my people; wherefore, to-day, go ye to your boat, and lie down in the boat, exalting yourselves; and to-morrow I will send for you, and ye must say: "we will not ride on horses, we will not walk afoot, but do ye carry us in our boat."" Thus did she dismiss them to the boat. Then Olga commanded a great and deep pit to be digged in the courtyard of the palace, outside the town. And the next morning, as Olga sat in her palace, she sent for the guests, and Olga"s people came to them, saying: "Olga biddeth you to a great honor." But they said: "We will not ride on horses, nor on oxen, neither will we walk afoot, but do thou carry us in our boat." And the Kievlyans said: "We must, perforce, carry you; our prince is slain, and our princess desireth to wed your prince," and they bore them in the boat, and those men sat there and were filled with pride; and they carried them to the courtyard, to Olga, and flung them into the pit, together with their boat. And Olga, bending over the pit, said unto them: "Is the honor to your taste?" and they made answer: "It is worse than igor"s death"; and she commanded that they be buried alive, and they were so buried.
The narrative goes on to state that Olga sent word to the Drevlyans, that if they were in earnest, their distinguished men must be sent to woo her for their prince; otherwise, the Kievlyans would not let her go.
Accordingly, they a.s.sembled their best men, the rulers, and sent them for her. Olga had the bath heated and ordered them to bathe before presenting themselves to her, and when they began to wash, Olga had the bath-house set on fire, and burned them up. Then Olga sent again to the Drevlyans, demanding that they collect a vast amount of hydromel in the town where her husband had been slain, that she might celebrate the ancient funeral feast, and weep over his grave. So they got the honey together, and brewed the hydromel (or mead), and Olga, taking with her a small body-guard, in light marching order, set out on the road and came to her husband"s grave and wept over it; and commanded her people to erect a high mound over it; and when that was done, she ordered the funeral feast to be celebrated on its summit. Then the Drevlyans sat down to drink, and Olga ordered her serving-boys to wait on them. And the Drevlyans asked Olga where was the guard of honor which they had sent for her? And she told them that it was following with her husband"s body-guard. But when the Drevlyans were completely intoxicated, she ordered her serving-lads to drink in their honor, went aside, and commanded her men to slay the Drevlyans, which was done, five hundred dying thus. Then Olga returned to Kieff, and made ready an army against the remaining Drevlyans. Such is one of the vivid pictures of ancient manners and customs which the chronicle of Nestor furnishes.
The descendants of Prince-Saint Vladimir were not only patrons of education, but collectors of books. One of them, in particular, Vladimir Monomachus, is also noted as the author of the "Exhortation of Vladimir Monomachus" (end of the eleventh century), which he wrote for his children, in the style of a pastoral address from an ecclesiastic to his flock--a style which, in Russia, as elsewhere, was the inevitable result of the first efforts at non-religious literature, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. "Chiefest of all," he writes, among other things, "forget not the poor, and feed them according to your powers; give most of all to the orphans, and be ye yourselves the defenders of the widows, permitting not the mighty to destroy a human being. Slay ye not either the righteous or the guilty yourselves, neither command others to slay them. In discourse, whatsoever ye shall say, whether good or evil, swear ye not by G.o.d, neither cross ye yourselves; there is no need of it....
Reverence the aged as your father, the young as brethren. In thy house be not slothful, but see to all thyself; put not thy trust in a steward, neither in a servant, that thy guests jeer not at thy house, nor at thy dinner.... Love your wives, but give them no power over you. Forget not the good ye know, and what ye know not, as yet, that learn ye," and so forth.
The beginning of the twelfth century witnessed other notable attempts at secular literature. To the twelfth century, also, belongs Russia"s single written epic song, "The Word (or lay) Concerning igor"s Raid,"
which contains an extremely curious mixture of Christianity and heathen views. By a fortunate chance, this epic was preserved and was discovered, in 1795, by Count Musin-Pushkin, among a collection which he had purchased from a monastery. Unhappily, Count Musin-Pushkin"s valuable library was burned during the conflagration of Moscow, in 1812.
But the _Slovo_ had been twice published previous to that date, and had been examined by many learned paleographists, who decided that the chirography belonged to the end of the fourteenth century or the beginning of the fifteenth century.
igor Svyatoslavitch was the prince of Novgorod-Syeversk, who in 1185, made a raid against the Polovtzy, or Plain-dwellers, and the Word begins thus:
Shall we not begin our song, oh brothers, With the story of the feuds of old; Song of the valiant troop of igor, And of him, the son of Svyatoslaff, And sing them as men now do sing, Striving not in thought after Boyan.[4]
Making this ballad, he was wont the Wizard, As a squirrel swift to flit about the forest, As a gray wolf o"er the clear plain to trot, And as an eagle "neath the clouds to hover; When he recalleth ancient feuds of yore, Then, from out the flock of swans he sendeth In pursuit, ten falcons, swift of wing.
The whole expedition is described in this poetical style, in three hundred and eighty-four unrhymed lines, with a curious mingling of heathen beliefs and Christian views. G.o.d shows igor the road "to the land of Polovetzk, to the Russian land," and on his return from captivity, igor rides to Kieff to salute the Holy Birth-giver of G.o.d of Pirogoshtch, while the Polovtzy are called "accursed," in contrast with the orthodox Russians. But the winds are called "the grandchildren of Stribog," and the Russian people are alluded to as "the grandsons of Dazhbog," both heathen divinities, and other mythical and obscure personages are introduced.
With this epic lay, the first period of Russian literature closes.
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
1. How did Vladimir and his son provide for the education of their people?
2. What kind of literature naturally grew out of the learning of the monasteries?
3. What was the chronicle of Nestor? What special interest has it?
4. Quote some of the precepts from the "Exhortation of Monomachus."
5. By what good fortune has "igor"s Raid" been preserved?
6. What is the character of this Epic Song?
FOOTNOTES:
[4] Evidently an ancient epic bard.
CHAPTER III
SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE TATaR DOMINION TO THE TIME OF IVaN THE TERRIBLE, 1224-1330.
During the Tatar Dominion, or yoke (1224-1370), Kieff lost its supremacy, and also ceased to be, as it had been up to this time, the center of education and literature. The dispersive influence of the Tatar raids had the effect of creating centers in the northeast, which were, eventually, concentrated in Moscow; and in so far it proved a blessing in disguise for Russia. The conditions of life under the Tatar sway were such, that any one, man or woman, who valued a peaceful existence, or existence at all, was driven to seek refuge in monasteries. The inevitable consequence was, that a religious, even an aesthetic, cast was imparted to what little literature was created. One celebrated production, dating from about the middle of the fourteenth century, will serve to give an idea of the sort of thing on which men then exercised their minds and pens. It is the Epistle of Archbishop Vasily of Novgorod to Feodor, bishop of Tver, ent.i.tled, "Concerning the Earthly Paradise," wherein the author discusses a subject of contention which had arisen among the clergy of the latter"s diocese, as to "whether the earthly paradise planted by G.o.d for Adam doth still exist upon the earth, or whether not the earthly but only an imaginary paradise doth still exist." The worthy archbishop, with divers arguments, defends his position, that the earthly paradise does still exist in the East, and h.e.l.l in the West: which latter proposition is not surprising when we recall the historical circ.u.mstances under which it was enounced.
The monks continued to be the leaders in the educational and literary army, and under the stress of circ.u.mstances, not only won immense political influence over the life of the people, but also developed a new and special type of literature--political sermons--which attained to particular development in the fourteenth century. Another curious phenomenon was presented by the narratives concerning various prominent personages, which contain precious facts and expressions of contemporary views. The authors always endeavored, after the time-honored fashion of biographers, to exalt and adorn their subjects; so that "decorated narratives," a most apt t.i.tle for that sort of literature in general, was the characteristic name under which they came to be known. One peculiarity of all of these, it is worth noting, including that which dealt with the decisive battle with the Tatars on the field of Kulikovo, on the Don, in 1370, under Dmitry Donskoy (Dmitry of the Don), Prince of Moscow, is, that they are imitated, in style and language, from the famous "Word Concerning igor"s Raid."
Among the many purely secular tales of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries preserved in ma.n.u.script, not one has anything in common with Russian national literature. All are translations, or reconstructions of material derived from widely divergent sources, such as the stories of Alexander of Macedon, of the Trojan War, and various Oriental tales.
About the middle of the sixteenth century, Makary, metropolitan of Moscow, collected, in twelve huge volumes, the Legends (or Spiritual Tales) of the Saints, under the t.i.tle of Tchetya Minaya--literally, Monthly Reading. It was finished in 1552, and contains thirteen hundred Lives of Saints.