_Eclipses of the Year 1900_
Total solar eclipse May 28th.
Partial lunar eclipse June 12th.
Annular (solar) eclipse November 21st.
68. ECLIPSE LIMITS.--If the earth is exactly at the node at the time of new moon, the moon"s shadow will fall centrally upon it and will produce an eclipse visible within the torrid zone, since this is that part of the earth"s surface nearest the plane of its...o...b..t. If the earth is near but not at the node, the new moon will stand a little north or south of the plane of the earth"s...o...b..t, and its shadow will strike the earth farther north or south than before, producing an eclipse in the temperate or frigid zones; or the shadow may even pa.s.s entirely above or below the earth, producing no eclipse whatever, or at most a partial eclipse visible near the north or south pole. Just how many days" motion the earth may be away from the node and still permit an eclipse is shown in the following brief table of eclipse limits, as they are called:
_Solar Eclipse Limits_
If at any new moon the earth is
Less than 10 days away from a node, a central eclipse is certain.
Between 10 and 16 days " " " some kind of eclipse is certain.
Between 16 and 19 days " " " a partial eclipse is possible.
More than 19 days " " " no eclipse is possible.
_Lunar Eclipse Limits_
If at any full moon the earth is
Less than 4 days away from a node, a total eclipse is certain.
Between 4 and 10 days " " " some kind of eclipse is certain.
Between 10 and 14 days " " " a partial eclipse is possible.
More than 14 days " " " no eclipse is possible.
From this table of eclipse limits we may draw some interesting conclusions about the frequency with which eclipses occur.
69. NUMBER OF ECLIPSES IN A YEAR.--Whenever the earth pa.s.ses a node of the moon"s...o...b..t a new moon must occur at some time during the 2 16 days that the earth remains inside the limits where some kind of eclipse is certain, and there must therefore be an eclipse of the sun every time the earth pa.s.ses a node of the moon"s...o...b..t. But, since there are two nodes past which the earth moves at least once in each year, there must be at least two solar eclipses every year. Can there be more than two?
On the average, will central or partial eclipses be the more numerous?
A similar line of reasoning will not hold true for eclipses of the moon, since it is quite possible that no full moon should occur during the 20 days required by the earth to move past the node from the western to the eastern limit. This omission of a full moon while the earth is within the eclipse limits sometimes happens at both nodes in the same year, and then we have a year with no eclipse of the moon. The student may note in the list of eclipses for 1900 that the partial lunar eclipse of June 12th occurred 10 days after the earth pa.s.sed the node, and was therefore within the doubtful zone where eclipses may occur and may fail, and corresponding to this position the eclipse was a very small one, only a thousandth part of the moon"s diameter dipping into the shadow of the earth. By so much the year 1900 escaped being an ill.u.s.tration of a year in which no lunar eclipse occurred.
A partial eclipse of the moon will usually occur about a fortnight before or after a total eclipse of the sun, since the full moon will then be within the eclipse limit at the opposite node. A partial eclipse of the sun will always occur about a fortnight before or after a total eclipse of the moon.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 35.--The eclipse of May 28, 1900.]
70. ECLIPSE MAPS.--It is the custom of astronomers to prepare, in advance of the more important eclipses, maps showing the trace of the moon"s shadow across the earth, and indicating the times of beginning and ending of the eclipses, as is shown in Fig. 35. While the actual construction of such a map requires much technical knowledge, the principles involved are simple enough: the straight line pa.s.sed through the center of sun and moon is the axis of the shadow cone, and the map contains little more than a graphical representation of when and where this cone meets the surface of the earth. Thus in the map, the "Path of Total Eclipse" is the trace of the shadow cone across the face of the earth, and the width of this path shows that the earth encountered the shadow considerably inside the vertex of the cone. The general direction of the path is from west to east, and the slight sinuousities which it presents are for the most part due to unavoidable distortion of the map caused by the attempt to represent the curved surface of the earth upon the flat surface of the paper. On either side of the Path of Total Eclipse is the region within which the eclipse was only partial, and the broken lines marked Begins at 3h., Ends at 3h., show the intersection of the penumbral cone with the surface of the earth at 3 P. M., Greenwich time. These two lines inclose every part of the earth"s surface from which at that time any eclipse whatever could be seen, and at this moment the partial eclipse was just beginning at every point on the eastern edge of the penumbra and just ending at every point on the western edge, while at the center of the penumbra, on the Path of Total Eclipse, lay the shadow of the moon, an oval patch whose greatest diameter was but little more than 60 miles in length, and within which lay every part of the earth where the eclipse was total at that moment.
The position of the penumbra at other hours is also shown on the map, although with more distortion, because it then meets the surface of the earth more obliquely, and from these lines it is easy to obtain the time of beginning and end of the eclipse at any desired place, and to estimate by the distance of the place from the Path of Total Eclipse how much of the sun"s face was obscured.
Let the student make these "predictions" for Washington, Chicago, London, and Algiers.
The points in the map marked First Contact, Last Contact, show the places at which the penumbral cone first touched the earth and finally left it. According to computations made as a basis for the construction of the map the Greenwich time of First Contact was 0h. 12.5m. and of Last Contact 5h. 35.6m., and the difference between these two times gives the total duration of the eclipse upon the earth--i. e., 5 hours 23.1 minutes.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 36.--Central eclipses for the first two decades of the twentieth century. OPPOLZER.]
71. FUTURE ECLIPSES.--An eclipse map of a different kind is shown in Fig. 36, which represents the shadow paths of all the central eclipses of the sun, visible during the period 1900-1918 A. D., in those parts of the earth north of the south temperate zone. Each continuous black line shows the path of the shadow in a total eclipse, from its beginning, at sunrise, at the western end of the line to its end, sunset, at the eastern end, the little circle near the middle of the line showing the place at which the eclipse was total at noon. The broken lines represent similar data for the annular eclipses. This map is one of a series prepared by the Austrian astronomer, Oppolzer, showing the path of every such eclipse from the year 1200 B. C. to 2160 A. D., a period of more than three thousand years.
If we examine the dates of the eclipses shown in this map we shall find that they are not limited to the particular seasons, May and November, in which those of the year 1900 occurred, but are scattered through all the months of the year, from January to December. This shows at once that the line of nodes, _N" N""_, of Fig. 34, does not remain in a fixed position, but turns round in the plane of the earth"s...o...b..t so that in different years the earth reaches the node in different months. The precession has already furnished us an ill.u.s.tration of a similar change, the slow rotation of the earth"s axis, producing a corresponding shifting of the line in which the planes of the equator and ecliptic intersect; and in much the same way, through the disturbing influence of the sun"s attraction, the line _N" N""_ is made to revolve westward, opposite to the arrowheads in Fig. 34, at the rate of nearly 20 per year, so that the earth comes to each node about 19 days earlier in each year than in the year preceding, and the eclipse season in each year comes on the average about 19 days earlier than in the year before, although there is a good deal of irregularity in the amount of change in particular years.
72. RECURRENCE OF ECLIPSES.--Before the beginning of the Christian era astronomers had found out a rough-and-ready method of predicting eclipses, which is still of interest and value. The substance of the method is that if we start with any eclipse whatever--e. g., the eclipse of May 28, 1900--and reckon forward or backward from that date a period of 18 years and 10 or 11 days, we shall find another eclipse quite similar in its general characteristics to the one with which we started.
Thus, from the map of eclipses (Fig. 36), we find that a total solar eclipse will occur on June 8, 1918, 18 years and 11 days after the one ill.u.s.trated in Fig. 35. This period of 18 years and 11 days is called _saros_, an ancient word which means cycle or repet.i.tion, and since every eclipse is repeated after the lapse of a saros, we may find the dates of all the eclipses of 1918 by adding 11 days to the dates given in the table of eclipses for 1900 (-- 67), and it is to be especially noted that each eclipse of 1918 will be like its predecessor of 1900 in character--lunar, solar, partial, total, etc. The eclipses of any year may be predicted by a similar reference to those which occurred eighteen years earlier. Consult a file of old almanacs.
The exact length of a saros is 223 lunar months, each of which is a little more than 29.5 days long, and if we multiply the exact value of this last number (see -- 60) by 223, we shall find for the product 6,585.32 days, which is equal to 18 years 11.32 days when there are four leap years included in the 18, or 18 years 10.32 days when the number of leap years is five; and in applying the saros to the prediction of eclipses, due heed must be paid to the number of intervening leap years.
To explain why eclipses are repeated at the end of the saros, we note that the occurrence of an eclipse depends solely upon the relative positions of the earth, moon, and node of the moon"s...o...b..t, and the eclipse will be repeated as often as these three come back to the position which first produced it. This happens at the end of every saros, since the saros is, approximately, the least common multiple of the length of the year, the length of the lunar month, and the length of time required by the line of nodes to make a complete revolution around the ecliptic. If the saros were exactly a multiple of these three periods, every eclipse would be repeated over and over again for thousands of years; but such is not the case, the saros is not an exact multiple of a year, nor is it an exact multiple of the time required for a revolution of the line of nodes, and in consequence the rest.i.tution which comes at the end of the saros is not a perfect one. The earth at the 223d new moon is in fact about half a day"s motion farther west, relative to the node, than it was at the beginning, and the resulting eclipse, while very similar, is not precisely the same as before. After another 18 years, at the second repet.i.tion, the earth is a day farther from the node than at first, and the eclipse differs still more in character, etc. This is shown in Fig. 37, which represents the apparent positions of the disks of the sun and moon as seen from the center of the earth at the end of each sixth saros, 108 years, where the upper row of figures represents the number of repet.i.tions of the eclipse from the beginning, marked _0_, to the end, _72_. The solar eclipse limits, 10, 16, 19 days, are also shown, and all those eclipses which fall between the 10-day limits will be central as seen from some part of the earth, those between 16 and 19 partial wherever seen, while between 10 and 16 they may be either total or partial. Compare the figure with the following description given by Professor Newcomb: "A series of such eclipses commences with a very small eclipse near one pole of the earth.
Gradually increasing for about eleven recurrences, it will become central near the same pole. Forty or more central eclipses will then recur, the central line moving slowly toward the other pole. The series will then become partial, and finally cease. The entire duration of the series will be more than a thousand years. A new series commences, on the average, at intervals of thirty years."
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 37.--Graphical ill.u.s.tration of the saros.]
A similar figure may be constructed to represent the recurrence of lunar eclipses; but here, in consequence of the smaller eclipse limits, we shall find that a series is of shorter duration, a little over eight centuries as compared with twelve centuries, which is the average duration of a series of solar eclipses.
One further matter connected with the saros deserves attention. During the period of 6,585.32 days the earth has 6,585 times turned toward the sun the same face upon which the moon"s shadow fell at the beginning of the saros, but at the end of the saros the odd 0.32 of a day gives the earth time to make about a third of a revolution more before the eclipse is repeated, and in consequence the eclipse is seen in a different region of the earth, on the average about 116 farther west in longitude. Compare in Fig. 36 the regions in which the eclipses of 1900 and 1918 are visible.
Is this change in the region where the repeated eclipse is visible, true of lunar eclipses as well as solar?
73. USE OF ECLIPSES.--At all times and among all peoples eclipses, and particularly total eclipses of the sun, have been reckoned among the most impressive phenomena of Nature. In early times and among uncultivated people they were usually regarded with apprehension, often amounting to a terror and frenzy, which civilized travelers have not scrupled to use for their own purposes with the aid of the eclipse predictions contained in their almanacs, threatening at the proper time to destroy the sun or moon, and pointing to the advancing eclipse as proof that their threats were not vain. In our own day and our own land these feelings of awe have not quite disappeared, but for the most part eclipses are now awaited with an interest and pleasure which, contrasted with the former feelings of mankind, furnish one of the most striking ill.u.s.trations of the effect of scientific knowledge in transforming human fear and misery into a sense of security and enjoyment.
But to the astronomer an eclipse is more than a beautiful ill.u.s.tration of the working of natural laws; it is in varying degree an opportunity of adding to his store of knowledge respecting the heavenly bodies. The region immediately surrounding the sun is at most times closed to research by the blinding glare of the sun"s own light, so that a planet as large as the moon might exist here unseen were it not for the occasional opportunity presented by a total eclipse which shuts off the excessive light and permits not only a search for unknown planets but for anything and everything which may exist around the sun. More than one astronomer has reported the discovery of such planets, and at least one of these has found a name and a description in some of the books, but at the present time most astronomers are very skeptical about the existence of any such object of considerable size, although there is some reason to believe that an enormous number of little bodies, ranging in size from grains of sand upward, do move in this region, as yet unseen and offering to the future problems for investigation.
But in other directions the study of this region at the times of total eclipse has yielded far larger returns, and in the chapter on the sun we shall have to consider the marvelous appearances presented by the solar prominences and by the corona, an appendage of the sun which reaches out from his surface for millions of miles but is never seen save at an eclipse. Photographs of the corona are taken by astronomers at every opportunity, and reproductions of some of these may be found in Chapter X.
Annular eclipses and lunar eclipses are of comparatively little consequence, but any recorded eclipse may become of value in connection with chronology. We date our letters in a particular year of the twentieth century, and commonly suppose that the years are reckoned from the birth of Christ; but this is an error, for the eclipses which were observed of old and by the chroniclers have been a.s.sociated with events of his life, when examined by the astronomers are found quite inconsistent with astronomic theory. They are, however, reconciled with it if we a.s.sume that our system of dates has its origin four years after the birth of Christ, or, in other words, that Christ was born in the year 4 B. C. A mistake was doubtless made at the time the Christian era was introduced into chronology. At many other points the chance record of an eclipse in the early annals of civilization furnishes a similar means of controlling and correcting the dates a.s.signed by the historian to events long past.
CHAPTER VIII
INSTRUMENTS AND THE PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THEIR USE
74. TWO FAMILIAR INSTRUMENTS.--In previous chapters we have seen that a clock and a divided circle (protractor) are needed for the observations which an astronomer makes, and it is worth while to note here that the geography of the sky and the science of celestial motions depend fundamentally upon these two instruments. The protractor is a simple instrument, a humble member of the family of divided circles, but untold labor and ingenuity have been expended on this family to make possible the construction of a circle so accurately divided that with it angles may be measured to the tenth of a second instead of to the tenth of a degree--i. e., 3,600 times as accurate as the protractor furnishes.
The building of a good clock is equally important and has cost a like amount of labor and pains, so that it is a far cry from Galileo and his discovery that a pendulum "keeps time" to the modern clock with its accurate construction and elaborate provision against disturbing influences of every kind. Every such timepiece, whether it be of the nutmeg variety which sells for a dollar, or whether it be the standard clock of a great national observatory, is made up of the same essential parts that fall naturally into four cla.s.ses, which we may compare with the departments of a well-ordered factory: I. A timekeeping department, the pendulum or balance spring, whose oscillations must all be of equal duration. II. A power department, the weights or mainspring, which, when wound, store up the power applied from outside and give it out piecemeal as required to keep the first department running. III. A publication department, the dial and hands, which give out the time furnished by Department I. IV. A transportation department, the wheels, which connect the other three and serve as a means of transmitting power and time from one to the other. The case of either clock or watch is merely the roof which shelters it and forms no department of its industry. Of these departments the first is by far the most important, and its good or bad performance makes or mars the credit of the clock.
Beware of meddling with the balance wheel of your watch.
75. RADIANT ENERGY.--But we have now to consider other instruments which in practice supplement or displace the simple apparatus. .h.i.therto employed. Among the most important of these modern instruments are the telescope, the spectroscope, and the photographic camera; and since all these instruments deal with the light which comes from the stars to the earth, we must for their proper understanding take account of the nature of that light, or, more strictly speaking, we must take account of the radiant energy emitted by the sun and stars, which energy, coming from the sun, is translated by our nerves into the two different sensations of light and heat. The radiant energy which comes from the stars is not fundamentally different from that of the sun, but the amount of energy furnished by any star is so small that it is unable to produce through our nerves any sensible perception of heat, and for the same reason the vast majority of stars are invisible to the unaided eye; they do not furnish a sufficient amount of energy to affect the optic nerves. A hot brick taken into the hand reveals its presence by the two different sensations of heat and pressure (weight); but as there is only one brick to produce the two sensations, so there is only one energy to produce through its action upon different nerves the two sensations of light and heat, and this energy is called _radiant_ because it appears to stream forth radially from everything which has the capacity of emitting it. For the detailed study of radiant energy the student is referred to that branch of science called physics; but some of its elementary principles may be learned through the following simple experiment, which the student should not fail to perform for himself:
Drop a bullet or other similar object into a bucket of water and observe the circular waves which spread from the place where it enters the water. These waves are a form of radiant energy, but differing from light or heat in that they are visibly confined to a single plane, the surface of the water, instead of filling the entire surrounding s.p.a.ce.
By varying the size of the bucket, the depth of the water, the weight of the bullet, etc., different kinds of waves, big and little, may be produced; but every such set of waves may be described and defined in all its princ.i.p.al characteristics by means of three numbers--viz., the vertical height of the waves from hollow to crest; the distance of one wave from the next; and the velocity with which the waves travel across the water. The last of these quant.i.ties is called the velocity of propagation; the second is called the wave length; one half of the first is called the amplitude; and all these terms find important applications in the theory of light and heat.
The energy of the falling bullet, the disturbance which it produced on entering the water, was carried by the waves from the center to the edge of the bucket but not beyond, for the wave can go only so far as the water extends. The transfer of energy in this way requires a perfectly continuous medium through which the waves may travel, and the whole visible universe is supposed to be filled with something called _ether_, which serves everywhere as a medium for the transmission of radiant energy just as the water in the experiment served as a medium for transmitting in waves the energy furnished to it by the falling bullet.
The student may think of this energy as being transmitted in spherical waves through the ether, every glowing body, such as a star, a candle flame, an arc lamp, a hot coal, etc., being the origin and center of such systems of waves, and determining by its own physical and chemical properties the wave length and amplitude of the wave systems given off.
The intensity of any light depends upon the amplitude of the corresponding vibration, and its color depends upon the wave length. By ingenious devices which need not be here described it has been found possible to measure the wave length corresponding to different colors--e. g., all of the colors of the rainbow, and some of these wave lengths expressed in tenth meters are as follows: A tenth meter is the length obtained by dividing a meter into 10^{10} equal parts. 10^{10} = 10,000,000,000.
Color. Wave length.