This law was proved by Coulomb by means of an instrument known as Coulomb"s Torsion Balance, and I must refer the reader to any work on electricity for a full establishment of this law. Suffice to say, that it has been experimentally demonstrated that the law holds good in relation to the phenomena of electricity; and, wherever we get the two kinds of electricity present in any medium or conductor, owing to the polarization of its particles, there we have this law operating in relation to the intensity of the repulsions of the two bodies directly concerned.
We have already learned that the sun is an electrified body, and from that hypothesis we have arrived at the conclusion that the earth and all the other planets are electrified bodies. This being so, it naturally follows that the intensity of the centrifugal force between any two of these bodies, as the sun and the earth for example, or the sun and Jupiter, is subject to the law of inverse squares; and that the repulsion of the sun and the earth for each other is always regulated by their distance, being inversely as the squares of the distance between them.
Thus, if the distance between the sun and any planet is reduced to one-half, which is an exaggerated view, the intensity of the centrifugal force is increased four times; if the distance be doubled the force is reduced to four times its former intensity, and so on.
Whatever the distance may be between the sun and any of the planets, if that distance be increased or decreased, then the intensity of the centrifugal force due to electric waves is increased or decreased in accordance with the law of inverse squares. This agrees with the centripetal law of Gravitation, as the Attraction of Gravitation is also subject to the same law of inverse squares, and, as we have seen (Art.
83), its path coincides with the path of centrifugal force, as it pursues the path represented by the straight lines joining the two bodies.
So that, whenever, and wherever, at any point in s.p.a.ce in relation to the central body, the sun, the intensity of the attractive force is increased according to the law of inverse squares by the distance from the central body being diminished, at exactly the same time and in exactly the same manner, the repulsive force due to aetherial electric waves is also increased. If the attractive force is doubled, then the repulsive force is doubled. If the attractive force is halved, the repulsive force is halved. If the attractive force is lessened gradually, then the repulsive force is lessened gradually; and if quickly, by the quicker motion of the planet through s.p.a.ce, then the repulsive motion is also increased with a quicker motion.
Further, like the repulsive power of light and heat, the repulsive power of electricity takes exactly the same path as the attractive power of Gravitation.
Thus we learn that the sun is the centre of two forces: first, a centrifugal force due to the pressure of the aetherial medium which is ever directed away from the sun, and which may either be produced by electric or thermal or light waves; and second, it is the centre of a centripetal force known as the Law of Gravity, whatever that may be due to. Further, the centrifugal force is also subject to the same law of intensity as the centripetal force, and moreover takes exactly the same path which the centripetal force takes.
So that we have only to prove that they both agree in another particular, viz. that their power is regulated by the product of their ma.s.ses, and then we shall have discovered a real physical force, which is the exact complement and counterpart of the centripetal force due to gravity.
ART. 85. _Second Law of Electricity. (Product of Ma.s.ses.)_--We have now to prove that the centrifugal force exerted by any electrified body operates upon another electrified body in the same proportion and with exactly the same force which governs the centripetal force. From Art. 21 we learn that the centripetal force which is exerted by one body upon another is equal to the product of their ma.s.ses. In order, therefore, for any centrifugal force to be the exact counterpart of that force, it too must be subject to the same law of proportion, that is, the repulsive force between any two bodies must be equal to the product of their ma.s.ses.
We have shown that there is a repulsive force exerted by the Aether from the phenomena of heat, light, and electricity, and that that repulsive force or energy fulfils every condition required by a centrifugal force or motion, with the exception of the part referring to the fact that such a force must be proportionate to the product of their ma.s.ses. What we were unable to accomplish, however, from the phenomena of heat or light we are now able to accomplish from the phenomena of electricity.
For in the phenomena of electricity we find a law which runs thus: "The force of repulsion" (which is the part of electricity we are now dealing with) "between two electrified bodies is equal to the quant.i.ties of electricity with which the body is charged." This law was established and proved by Coulomb by means of a delicate instrument known as the Torsion Balance, with which he also established the law of inverse squares.
It will be seen at a glance that there is a slight difference between stating the law of proportion with reference to the centripetal force, and the centrifugal force or motion. In the former we state the proportion is equal to the product of the ma.s.ses, while in the latter we say that the proportion is equal to the product of the quant.i.ties of electricity.
In the one case we deal with the ma.s.s of the body, whether it be atom, molecule, planet or star; in the other case we deal with quant.i.ties of electricity. At first sight it may seem that there is little, if any, connection between the two laws, but a careful reflection of the hypotheses laid down with regard to the aetherial medium will show that there is not only a close connection between these two laws of proportion, but also that the law governing the repulsive power of the aetherial electric waves is the direct outcome of the law of proportion governing the centripetal force. Let us restate our case in regard to the aetherial medium.
We have learned that the Aether is gravitative, and that it also has an electro-magnetic basis is proved from Maxwell"s electro-magnetic theory of light. Let me ask the reader this question therefore. If the Aether be gravitative, what must be the rule governing the extent and density of the aetherial atmosphere surrounding any planet or sun or other body?
If the Law of Gravity teaches us anything at all, it distinctly teaches us that the gravitating power of any body is regulated by the ma.s.s of the body, as the law states that the attraction is proportionate to the product of the ma.s.ses. It states nothing about volume or condition of a body.
The exact size or state of a body has no direct result bearing on gravitation attraction; the underlying principle being that the attractive force is dependent on the ma.s.s, and only on the ma.s.s of a body. So that if the volume of any body, whether atom, planet, satellite or sun, be doubled, its attractive power remains the same, simply because the ma.s.s of the whole body remains the same. Ma.s.s, we are told by mathematicians, is equal to the volume multiplied by the density, and whenever we increase the volume of a body we decrease the density, the total ma.s.s of the body remaining the same.
If the volume be doubled, then the density of the body would be halved, and _vice versa_, but through all the changes of volume and density that may arise from the addition of heat or diminution of heat, the total ma.s.s of a body always remains the same. Looked at from the atomic standpoint, taking hydrogen as unity, an atom of oxygen would always weigh sixteen times an atom of hydrogen, and this principle applies throughout the whole realm of the atomic world. Further, the same principle or law, that the ma.s.s is equal to the volume multiplied by the density, is true of the planetary or even the stellar world. Thus the great regulating principle of the attractive force of gravity is ma.s.s, and not volume, or density, or any other condition.
Now as Aether is subject to the attractive force of gravity, the extent of the aetherial field, and the density of the Aether near the surface of any body, must be subject to the same law regarding ma.s.s. That is, the aetherial atmosphere of any atom, or molecule, or satellite, or planet, or star is dependent upon the ma.s.s of the atom, the molecule, or the planet, or the star as the case may be.
Thus an atom of oxygen would have a larger or denser aetherial atmosphere than an atom of hydrogen, exactly proportionate to their respective ma.s.ses. A planet whose ma.s.s was represented by 1,000,000 tons would have twice the quant.i.ty of Aether around it, compared to a planet weighing only 500,000 tons, and so on, the aetherial atmosphere always being proportionate to the ma.s.s of the planet, or the satellite, or the sun, or the star. The fact which we learn from these considerations is that the quant.i.ty of Aether, which is attracted by any body, is always proportionate to the ma.s.s of the body attracting it.
But we have learned from Art. 78 that Aether has an electro-magnetic basis, and that the density of the Aether is co-equal with electric density, so that the quant.i.ty of Aether which is attracted and held bound by any body is really equal to the quant.i.ty of electricity that such a body is covered with, or is charged with. If the quant.i.ty of Aether around any body is doubled because its ma.s.s is doubled, then the quant.i.ty of electricity is also doubled, but as long as the ma.s.s remains unaltered, the quant.i.ty of electricity held bound by that ma.s.s remains unaltered also. The area of the ma.s.s may be doubled, and in that case the density of the electricity would be halved, but as long as the ma.s.s remained the same, the quant.i.ty of electricity would remain the same also. So that we learn from this reasoning that the ma.s.s of a body, and quant.i.ties of electricity on that ma.s.s, are always proportionate to each other, because of the fact that Aether is gravitative, and also has an electro-magnetic basis.
If we wanted further evidence of the hypothesis that has just been advanced, such evidence is to be found in the hypothesis suggested by Faraday as to the electro-chemical equivalents of all elements.
According to this hypothesis every element has its exact electro-chemical equivalent, or definite quant.i.ties of electricity are to be found in a.s.sociation with each and every particular atom of each element. Writing on the subject in his _Exp. Res._, par. 852, he says: "The theory of definite electro-chemical action appears to me to touch upon the absolute quant.i.ty of electricity or electrical power belonging to different bodies. Although we know nothing of what an atom is, yet we cannot resist forming some idea of a small particle which represents it to our mind, and though we cannot say what electricity is, so as to be able to say whether it is a particular matter or matters, or mere motion of ordinary matter, yet there is immensity of facts which justify us in believing that the atoms of matter are in some way endowed or a.s.sociated with electrical powers to which they owe their most striking qualities, and amongst them their chemical affinity." Further, in Art. 857, he states: "I can have no doubt that, a.s.suming hydrogen as 1, and dismissing small fractions for the simplicity of expression, the equivalent number or atomic weight of oxygen is 8, of chlorine 36, of bromine 78.4, and of lead 103.5, etc., notwithstanding that a high authority doubles several of these numbers."
Then, writing upon the definite relationship of these equivalents in compounds, he states (Art. 835): "Electro-chemical equivalents are always consistent, that is, the same number which represents the equivalent of a substance _A_ when it is separating from a substance _B_ will also represent _A_ when separating from a third substance _C_. Thus 8 is the electro-chemical equivalent of oxygen, whether separating from hydrogen, tin, or lead; and 103.5 is the electro-chemical equivalent of lead, whether separating from oxygen, or chlorine, or iodine."
Here, then, from the pen of one of the greatest thinkers and experimentalists of modern times we have confirmatory evidence that the ma.s.s of any body is practically synonymous with the quant.i.ty of electricity a.s.sociated with that body. For if the principle is true in its application to atoms, it is true in its application to molecules; and if it is true in relation to molecules, it is equally true in relation to small bodies composed of molecules. And if it holds good in relation to small bodies, the principle is equally true in its application to larger bodies, as the earth, and therefore is of universal application and proves the statement already made, that the ma.s.ses of bodies and quant.i.ties of electricity in a.s.sociation with that ma.s.s are always proportionate to each other.
We are now in a position to compare the proportion of the centripetal and centrifugal forces. The attractive power of the former, between two bodies, is equal to the product of their ma.s.ses; the repulsive power of the latter is equal to the product of the quant.i.ties of electricity bound to them, and that, as we have seen, is regulated by the respective ma.s.s of each body. Let us apply this fact to the solar system and see how it works.
Taking the ma.s.s of the earth as unity, we find that the ma.s.s of the sun is 324,000 greater, so that the attractive power of the two bodies would be represented by the product of the two numbers; but because the sun is that number of times greater, its aetherial and, therefore, its electric field would be so many times greater, with the result that the proportion of the repulsive forces between the two bodies would be exactly the same as the attractive forces between the two bodies, that is, if the mean distance remains the same.
In the same way, it can be shown that the attractive forces between the earth and Jupiter exactly equal the repulsive forces between the two planets at their mean distance, or the attractive forces between any two planets or satellites are exactly counterbalanced by the repulsive power of the centrifugal force at their mean distances.
Thus the centrifugal force of every body is the exact opposite of its centripetal force at their mean distance, because the laws governing the centrifugal force are the exact counterpart of the laws governing the centripetal force. A comparison of the two will prove this. From Arts.
20, 21, and 22 we have seen that the centripetal force is exerted along the straight lines joining the attracting bodies, that the intensity of the attracting body is inversely as the square of the distance, while the total force is proportionate to the product of their ma.s.ses.
From the phenomena of light, heat, and electricity, we learn that the centrifugal force due to aetherial pressure is exerted along straight lines, that the intensity is inversely as the square of the distance, while the total force between two bodies is equal to the product of the quant.i.ties of electricity, which are regulated by the product of their ma.s.ses.
Thus, if every planet and satellite could be conceived to be motionless in s.p.a.ce, and these two forces could be set in operation without producing rotation or translation in s.p.a.ce, which is impossible, then every planet and satellite would occupy, by the joint exercise of these two forces, the same position in relation to the sun represented by their mean distances, as long as the solar system existed as a separate system in the realm of aetherial s.p.a.ce. We have therefore discovered by strict philosophical reasoning, based on Newton"s Rules of Philosophy, a real tangible centrifugal force existing throughout the universe; because it is entirely due to the pressure of an universal Aether, whose operation is ever directed from a central body, which force was indicated by Herschel, and its existence to his mind was demonstrated by the repulsion exhibited in connection with the tails of comets.
We have now to go a step further, and show that the same pressure also includes the magnetic phenomena, as indicated by Clerk Maxwell, and that magnetic phenomena are also due to the aetherial medium, and then we shall have linked together in one common medium the majority of the forms of energy, as light, heat, electricity and magnetism, with which we are familiar.
If it be demonstrated that these two forces, the centrifugal force and the centripetal force, can conjointly account for all the motions of the celestial bodies, then we shall have conclusive evidence that one of the forces is physical and due to the pressure of a physical medium. After that it will be comparatively easy to show that the centripetal force is also due to the same aetherial medium, and then we shall have accomplished that which we set out to accomplish, viz. the establishment of a physical cause for universal Gravitation, which physical cause is alone to be found in the pressures, tensions and motions of an universal Aether.
CHAPTER IX
AETHER AND MAGNETISM
ART. 86. _Electro-magnetism._--We have now to look at the relation of magnetism to electricity, or, in other words, to prove the ident.i.ty that exists between magnetism and electricity. In Art. 78 we have proved the ident.i.ty between electricity and light, so that if we can now prove the ident.i.ty between electricity and magnetism, then, wherever we get aetherial light waves, we must also get aetherial electro-magnetic waves.
As the light waves due to the vibrations of the Aether are practically universal in extent, then it must follow, if the ident.i.ty of the light waves with electro-magnetic waves is established, that the universality of electro-magnetic waves is established also, with the natural result, that, wherever we get these electro-magnetic waves, there we shall have the conditions by which all electro-magnetic phenomena are produced.
Now it can be demonstrated by actual experiment that wherever we get a circular current of electricity, there we have magnetic phenomena manifested. The two are inseparably connected, and it is impossible to obtain the one without the other. For example, suppose we have a wire conveying a current of electricity and make it into a coil as in Figure 15, what is the result? The result is, that the coil of wire has actually been converted into a magnet.
It will attract iron filings that are brought near it, and also magnetize an iron bar placed in the centre of the coils, and convert that into a magnet. Indeed, there is nothing which can be done by an ordinary bar magnet which cannot be done by a coiled wire conveying an electric current.
From this and similar experiments it can be demonstrated that wherever we get a circular current of electricity, there, a.s.sociated with that current, are all the phenomena incidental to and a.s.sociated with the ordinary bar magnet. This leads us to the truth discovered by Ampere, that magnetism is nothing more or less than electricity in rotation, or that it is due to a whirl of electricity circulating round the molecule of any body. From certain experiments which he made in relation to the mutual action of two circuits on each other, with currents flowing through them, he came to the conclusion that the magnetism of the molecule of each magnet is due to electric currents circulating round it.
The question arises as to what effect our new theory of the Aether has upon Ampere"s theory: does it confirm it, or does it destroy it? We have learned that every atom has its aetherial atmosphere, so to speak, which is bound to the atom by the Law of Gravitation (Art. 45). We have also learned that Aether has an electrical basis, as proved by Maxwell and Hertz, so that we learn that every atom has really an aetherial electric atmosphere in a.s.sociation with it. We have only to conceive of this atmosphere being set in rotation either by the rotation of the atom or molecule itself, or by outside agencies, and we have at once a physical interpretation of Ampere"s theory of magnetism in the rotation of electric currents around the atom, such currents being due to the circulating or rotating motion of the Aether which surrounds the atom or molecule.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig: 15.]
Thus we learn from experiment, and from Ampere"s theory also, that magnetism is directly a.s.sociated with circulating currents of electricity, and that wherever we get currents of electricity circulating round any atom or body, there we get all the phenomena a.s.sociated with magnetism. That is to say, we shall have such phenomena as magnetic fields, magnetic lines of force, magnetic induction, and the production of permanent magnets by electricity.
Further, with reference to the ident.i.ty of electricity and magnetism, Faraday has conclusively proved their relation to each other; and I would strongly advise any reader who desires further light on the subject to carefully read paragraphs 3265-3269 in his _Experimental Researches_, where he will find experiments which place the ident.i.ty of electricity and magnetism beyond the possibility of doubt. In paragraph 3265 he writes: "The well-known relation of the electric and magnetic forces may be thus stated. Let two rings in planes at right angles to each other represent them. If a current of electricity be sent round the ring _E_ in the direction marked, then lines of magnetic force will be produced. As these rings represent the lines of electro-dynamic force and of magnetic force respectively, they will serve for a standard of comparison."
"I have elsewhere called the electric current or the line of electro-dynamic force an axis of power having contrary forces exactly equal in amount in contrary directions (517). The line of magnetic force may be described in precisely the same terms, and these two axes of power considered as right lines are perpendicular to each other," etc.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig: 16.]
Again in 3267 he adds: "Like electric currents or lines of force, or axes of power when placed side by side attract each other. This is well known and well ill.u.s.trated when wires carrying such currents are placed parallel to each other. But like magnetic axes of power or lines of force repel each other. The parallel case to that of electric currents is given by placing two magnetic needles side by side with like poles in the same direction."
Then in 3268 he shows that these effects are not merely contrasts, but they are contrasts which coincide when the two axes of power at right angles to each other are considered. Then in 3269 he adds: "The mutual relation of the magnetic lines of force and the electric axis of power has been known since the time of Oersted and Ampere," and further states he is of the opinion that "the magnetic lines have a physical existence the same as the electric lines," and having that opinion, asks whether "the lines have a dynamic condition a.n.a.logous to the electric axis to which they are so closely and inevitably a.s.sociated, or whether they consist in a state of tension of the Aether round the electric axis, and may therefore be considered as static in their nature." Thus Faraday proved the intimate and close relationship that existed between the electric current and the circles which represent the magnetic force in a.s.sociation with that current; and, what is more noticeable, he asks whether such magnetic results are due to a state of tension in the Aether around the axis of the electric current, evidently being of the opinion that the Aether played an important part in the phenomena of magnetism, as well as in electricity, as other parts of his writings abundantly show.