A seedling five years old may not exceed five inches in height; but when its roots have developed, growth is fairly rapid. The distribution of seeds is often facilitated by the activities of red squirrels, and perhaps other small mammals, which climb the trees in winter and tear the cones apart to get at the seeds. Many of the seeds are devoured, but more escape and fly away on the winter winds.
Hemlock leaves are narrow and about half an inch long. Examined closely, particularly with a magnifying gla.s.s, rows of white dots extend from end to end on the under side. Small as these white points are separately, when seen in the aggregate they change the color of the whole crown of the tree. This is ill.u.s.trated by looking at a hemlock from a distance--the upper sides of the leaves on the drooping twigs being then visible and the tree"s aspect dark green. Approach the tree, and look up from its base--the under side of the leaves being then visible--and the dark color changes to a light silvery tint. The whiteness is due to the white spots on the leaves. The spots are stomata (mouths), and are parts of the chemical laboratory which carries on the tree"s living processes.
All tree leaves have stomata, but all are not arranged in the same way and are not visible alike. Few trees have them as prominent as the hemlocks.
Hemlock attains a height from sixty to 100 feet and a diameter from two to four. When it grows in the open, it is one of the handsomest and most symmetrical evergreens of any country. Its dark, dense foliage will permit scarcely any sunlight to filter through. When forest-grown, it loses its lower limbs. In the forester"s language, they are "shaded off," and long, smooth trunks are developed; but the stubs from which the branches fall remain buried deep inside the smoothest bole, and the saws will find them when the logs are converted into lumber.
Reference has been made to hemlock"s slow growth during the seedling"s first four or five years. That takes place in the dense shade of the hemlock forest. If the seed falls on open ground, in full sunlight, the chance is that it will not germinate; but if it does, the seedling is doomed to an early death. It cannot endure strong light. This fact is of great importance, for it means the end of hemlock forests. When a stand is cut and the sunshine reaches the ground, no seedlings bring on a new forest. White pine seeds grow in open ground, in old fields, in burnt woods, wherever they reach soil, but hemlock must scatter its seeds in cool, deep shade or they will do little good. Strong, vigorous, and healthy as hemlock trees are, they are killed more easily than almost any other. Cut a few trees from the center of a mature hemlock clump, and the chance is that several trees next to the open s.p.a.ce thus made will die. The unusual light proves too much for their roots which had always been cool and damp; but when young hemlocks are protected until they get a start, they thrive nicely in the open.
The wood of hemlock is light, soft, not strong, brittle, coa.r.s.e and crooked grained, difficult to work, liable to windshake, splinters badly, not durable. The summerwood of the annual ring is conspicuous; and the thin medullary rays are numerous. The color of hemlock heartwood is light brown, tinged with red, often nearly white. The sapwood is darker. Lumbermen recognize two varieties, red and white, but botanists do not recognize them.
The physical characters of hemlock are nearly all unfavorable, yet it has become a useful and widely used wood. It is largely manufactured into coa.r.s.e lumber and used for outside work--railway ties, joists, rafters, sheathing, plank walks, laths, etc. It is rarely used for inside finishing, owing to its brittle and splintery character. Clean boards made into panels or similar work and finished in the natural color often present a very handsome appearance, owing to the peculiar pinkish tint of the wood, ripening and improving with age.
With the growing scarcity of white and Norway pine, hemlock has become the natural subst.i.tute for these woods for many purposes. It has never been conceded that hemlock possesses the intrinsic merit of either of the northern pines for structural purposes, but it has proven a suitable subst.i.tute for a variety of uses, notably for framing and sheathing of medium priced structures.
In 1910 hemlock lumber was cut in twenty-one states, the total output exceeding 2,500,000,000 feet. Only four species or groups of species exceeded it in amount. They were southern yellow pines, Douglas fir, the oaks, and white pine. The princ.i.p.al cut of hemlock lumber was in the following states in the order named: Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, Maine, Vermont, Virginia, New Hampshire, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Ten other states produced smaller amounts.
Hemlock possesses remarkable holding power on nails and spikes, and that is one reason for its large use for railroad ties. It does not easily split, and there is no likelihood that spikes will work loose; but the wood decays quickly in damp situations, and unless given preservative treatment, hemlock ties do not last long. They are pretty soft anyway, and where traffic is heavy, rails cut them badly.
Manufacturers of boxes and crates use much hemlock. The annual use for that purpose in Ma.s.sachusetts is about 27,000,000 feet, in Michigan practically the same quant.i.ty, in Illinois 34,000,000, and varying quant.i.ties in many other states. Michigan converts nearly 100,000,000 feet a year into flooring and other planing mill products, and Wisconsin and other hemlock states follow it in lesser amounts. The wood is employed by car builders, slack coopers, manufacturers of refrigerators, silos, and farm implements; but the largest demand comes from those who use the rough lumber.
Hemlock bark is the most important tanning material in this country. It has long been used by leather makers who generally mix it with some other bark or extract because leather tanned with hemlock alone has a redder color than is desired.
Large areas of hemlock forests have been cut for the bark alone.
Formerly the wood was of so little value that it was cheaper to leave it in the forest than to take it out. The peelers worked in early summer, cutting trees and removing the bark in four-foot lengths, which was measured by the cord, though often sold by weight. Care was taken that the bark be removed from the slashings before the dry weather of autumn, for fire was to be expected then, and anything combustible in the woods at that time was likely to be lost. The tracts on which bark peelers worked were called "slashings," and they were fire traps of the worst kind with their tangled ma.s.ses of tops and branches.
Large quant.i.ties of hemlock bark are still peeled every summer, but the practice is less destructive than formerly. The trunks are worth taking out, and when the fire comes late in the season it consumes little valuable hemlock. A permanent decline in the annual production of this wood has not yet begun, but it must soon set in, for the demand cannot be indefinitely met.
[Ill.u.s.tration]
WESTERN HEMLOCK
[Ill.u.s.tration: WESTERN HEMLOCK]
WESTERN HEMLOCK
(_Tsuga Heterophylla_)
When this wood began to go to market, its promoters found difficulties in securing a trial for it in eastern states, because of its name. The eastern hemlock was known to be a substantial wood, but a rough one with many faults linked with its virtues. It was naturally supposed that the western hemlock had all the faults of its eastern relative with possibly some of the good qualities left out; and there was general hesitancy to put the new comer to a trial. That caused a movement among western lumbermen to sell their hemlock under some other name. They were confident the wood had only to be given a trial and it would win its way, after which the name would make little difference. Accordingly, it was started to market under the name of Alaska pine, although Alaska has no pine large enough for good lumber. Other lumbermen thought it advisable to choose a name less likely to excite suspicion, and they called it Washington pine. Others designated it as spruce, and still others as fir. It was more likely to pa.s.s for fir than for pine or spruce.
The lumber is now generally known as western hemlock, but in California some call it hemlock spruce or California hemlock spruce. In Idaho, Washington, and Oregon the name hemlock usually suffices; while western hemlock spruce, and western hemlock fir, and Prince Albert"s fir are names used in speaking of lumber and of the tree in the forest.
Western hemlock"s range extends north and south a thousand miles, from southern Alaska to California south of San Francisco. It grows from the Pacific coast eastward to Montana, five hundred miles or more. It ascends to alt.i.tudes of 6,000 feet, but it is not at its best on high mountains, but in the warm, damp region near the coast in Washington and Oregon. Trees 200 feet high and eight or ten in diameter are found, but the average size is much less.
The leaves of western hemlock are dark green and very l.u.s.trous above.
The flowers are yellow and purple. Cones are one inch or less in length, and the small seeds are equipped with wings which carry them some distance from the base of the parent tree. The seeds will germinate and develop a root system without touching mineral soil. Their ability to do so a.s.sists them greatly in maintaining the tree"s position in the damp climate where this hemlock reaches its best development. The ground in the forest, with all objects that lie upon it, is often covered with wet moss a foot or more thick. The seeds of most trees would inevitably perish if they fell upon such a bed of moss; but the seeds of western hemlock germinate, and the rootlets strike through the moss until they reach the soil beneath, and seedling trees are soon growing vigorously.
Seeds often germinate in the moss on logs and stumps, but the roots strike for the ground, and generally reach it. In this habit the western hemlock resembles the yellow birch of the East whose seeds seem to germinate best on mossy logs and stumps.
Western hemlock has one of the bad habits of its eastern relative: it does not prune itself very well, even in dense forests, and the lumber is apt to be knotty, but the knots are usually sound, though dark in color.
The wood of western hemlock is moderately light, but twenty per cent heavier than eastern hemlock; stronger than the wood of other American hemlocks, and nearly twenty-five per cent stronger than the eastern commercial species, and nearly fifty per cent stiffer. It is tough and hard, but has little of the flinty texture of other hemlocks. Its color is pale brown, tinged with yellow, the thin sapwood nearly white. It is fairly durable in contact with the soil. Its growth is usually rapid, and trees live to a great age. Some of the largest are said to reach 800 years. The summerwood often const.i.tutes half of the yearly ring, and is dark yellow. The medullary rays are numerous and rather prominent. When cut radially, the appearance, size, and arrangement of the exposed medullary rays suggest those of sugar maple when exposed in the same way.
The annual sawmill output of western hemlock is about 170,000,000 feet.
The largest market for it is in the region where it grows, and it is used as rough lumber for ranch purposes and for buildings in towns; but a considerable quant.i.ty is further manufactured. About one-fourth of the entire sawmill output goes to the factories of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. A list of the wood"s princ.i.p.al uses in those states shows its intrinsic value. The largest quant.i.ty is demanded by box factories. The wood"s nail-holding power commends it for that use, but of no less importance is its strength. Eighty-three per cent of all the wood used for boxes in Washington is western hemlock. Cooperage calls for much of this wood also. Fruit and vegetable barrels are made of it. Its place in furniture manufacture corresponds to that of the other hemlock in the East. The pulp business is not very extensive on the Pacific coast, but western hemlock is a respectable contributor. It is suitable for burial boxes, and probably ranks about third among the woods within its range, those used in larger amounts being Sitka spruce and western red cedar.
It is coming into use as interior finish, particularly as door and window frame material. Fixture manufacturers employ it for drawers and shelves. It is made into flooring, ceiling, molding, and wainscoting.
Door makers use a little of it as core material over which to glue veneers. It is made into veneer, but of the cheaper sorts, such as are suitable for crates and berry boxes.
The Pacific coast is so abundantly supplied with excellent softwoods that only those of good quality have any chance in the local markets.
The fact that western hemlock has won and is holding an important place in active compet.i.tion with such woods as western red cedar, yellow cedar, Sitka spruce, and Douglas fir, is proof that it is valuable material. It is winning its way in the central part of the United States also, but not as rapidly as it has won in the West.
The bark of western hemlock is rated high as a tanning material. The bark on young trees is thin, but as the trunks increase in size and age the bark thickens. It is richer in tannin than the bark of eastern hemlock, but is not so extensively used because the demand is less on the Pacific coast.
The future of the western hemlock is fairly well a.s.sured. Its range is extensive and varied, and lumbermen will be a long time in cutting the last of the present stand. Reproduction is satisfactory. It will be important in future forestry, when people will grow much of the timber they need; but this tree will stick pretty close to the range where nature planted it.
MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (_Tsuga mertensiana_) is a near relative of western hemlock, and occupies the same geographical ranges but higher on the mountains. Near Sitka, Alaska, it occurs at sea level, but southward it rises higher until on the Sierra Nevada mountains in California it is 10,000 feet above sea level. It is one of the timber line trees in many parts of its range, though it is nowhere above all others. It is a difficult matter to state what its average size is. That depends upon the particular region considered. At its best it is 100 feet high or even more; at its poorest it sprawls on the rocks like a shrub.
Specimens of fair size are from twenty-five to sixty feet high, and ten to twenty inches in diameter. Cones vary in size fully as much as the trunks. Some are one-half inch in length, others are three inches. The leaves vary no less, some being a one-twelfth inch long, others one inch. The leaves stand out on all sides of the twig, and fall during the third and fourth years. They are bluish-green. The seeds fall in September and October, and are provided with large wings. The wood is light in weight, soft, and pale reddish-brown. The mountain hemlock is nearly always spoken of as spruce by persons who are not botanists. The arrangement of the leaves on the twigs gives the impression that it is a spruce, and among the names by which it is known in its native region are Williamson"s spruce, weeping spruce, alpine spruce, hemlock spruce, Patton"s spruce, and alpine western spruce. There is little prospect that this tree will ever become important as a source of lumber. It is nowhere very abundant, and what timber there is generally stands so remote from mills that little of it will ever be taken out. Botanists and mountain travelers who have made the acquaintance of the mountain hemlock in the wildness of its natural surroundings have spoken and written much in its praise. It has been called the loveliest cone-bearing tree of the American forest. That praise, however, applies only when the tree is at its best, with its broad, pyramidal crown, balanced and proportioned with geometrical accuracy, outlined against a background of rocks, peaks, snow, or sky. Its other form, prostrate and angular where the tree occurs on cold, bleak mountains, has never inspired praise from anybody, though its defiance of the elements and its persistence in spite of adversity, cannot but challenge the admiration of all who like a fair and square fighter. There are many intermediate forms. On mountains facing the Pacific, and at alt.i.tudes of 6,000 or 7,000 feet, the young hemlocks are buried under deep snow weeks or months at a time. They are pressed down by the weight of tons, and it might be supposed that not a whole branch would be left on them, and that the main stems would be deformed the rest of their lives. But when the early summer sun melts the snow, the young trees spring back to their former faultless forms, without a twig missing or a twisted branch.
[Ill.u.s.tration]
WESTERN YEW
[Ill.u.s.tration: WESTERN YEW]
WESTERN YEW
(_Taxus Brevifolia_)
The Pacific yew is an interesting tree, useful for many minor purposes, but it is not procurable in large quant.i.ties. Its north and south range covers more than 1,000 miles, from Alaska to central California; while the species occurs from the Pacific coast eastward to Montana. It approaches sea level on some of the Alaskan islands, and toward the southern part of its range it reaches an alt.i.tude of 8,000 feet.
In Idaho it is called mountain mahogany, but apparently without good reason. Its color may bear some resemblance to that wood, but it is different in so many particulars that the name is not appropriate. The names western yew and Pacific yew are used interchangeably. Sometimes it bears the simple name yew; but since there is a yew in Florida, and another in Europe, it is well to give the western species a name which will distinguish it from others. The northwestern Indians called it "fighting wood," which was the best description possible for them to give. They made bows of it, and it was superior to any other wood within their reach for that purpose. In fact, if they could have picked from all the woods of the United States they could scarcely have found its equal. It is very strong, though in elasticity its rating is under many other woods. It is of interest to note that five hundred or more years ago, the European yew (a closely related but different species) had nearly the same name in England that the northwestern Indians gave the western yew. It was called "the shooter yew," because it was the bow wood of that time, and "bow staves," which were rough pieces to be worked out by the bow makers, were articles of commerce. The search for it was so great, and so long-continued, that yew trees were well-nigh exterminated in the British Isles. It was, next to oak, and possibly above oak, the most indispensable wood in England at that time. It is instructive to observe that Indians who used the bow found the western yew as indispensable in their life as the English armies found the European yew at a time when the bow was the best weapon.
The northwestern Indians put this remarkable wood to other uses. They made spears of it, and sometimes employed them as weapons of war, but generally as implements of the chase, particularly in harpooning salmon which in summer ascend the northwestern rivers from the Pacific ocean in immense schools. The Indians whittled fishhooks of yew before they were able to buy steel hooks from traders. Some of those unique hooks are still in existence, and speak well of the inventive genius of the wild fisherman of the wilderness. A proper crook was selected where a branch joined the trunk, and serviceable fish hooks were made without any cross grain. They were strong enough to hold the largest fish that ascended the rivers. Sometimes a bone barb was skillfully inserted. The Indians found a further use for this wood as material for canoe paddles. It is so strong that handles can be made small and blades thin without pa.s.sing the limit of safety. The manufacture of boat paddles from yew continues.
More is used for fence posts than for any other one purpose. It is one of the most durable woods known where it must resist conditions conducive to decay. The name yew is said to be derived from a word in a north Europe language meaning everlasting. Yew fence posts are not named in statistics, and it is impossible to quote numbers. Their use is confined to the districts where they grow.
The manufacturers of small cabinets draw supplies from this wood, but the fact is not mentioned in Pacific states wood-using statistics. It is particularly liked for turnery, such as small spindles used in furniture and in grill work. It takes an exceptionally fine polish, and the wood"s great strength makes the use of slender pieces practicable. Experiments have shown that this wood may be stained with success, but its natural color is so attractive that there is little need of staining unless the purpose is to imitate some more costly wood. If stained black it is an excellent subst.i.tute for ebony.