of saturated bromine water (Note 3) through it and finally wash the paper carefully with hot water and transfer any particles of copper which may be left on it to the Erlenmeyer flask. Boil to expel the bromine. Add concentrated ammonia drop by drop until the appearance of a deep blue coloration indicates an excess. Boil until the deep blue is displaced by a light bluish green coloration, or until brown stains form on the sides of the flask. Add 10 cc. of strong acetic acid (Note 4) and cool under the water tap. Add a solution containing about 3 grams of pota.s.sium iodide, as in the standardization, and t.i.trate with thiosulphate solution until the yellow of the liberated iodine is nearly discharged. Add 1-2 cc. of freshly prepared starch solution and t.i.trate to the disappearance of the blue color.
From the data obtained, calculate the percentage of copper (Cu) in the ore.
[Note 1: Nitric acid, because of its oxidizing power, is used as a solvent for the sulphide ores. As a strong acid it will also dissolve the copper from carbonate ores. The hydrochloric acid is added to dissolve oxides of iron and to precipitate silver and lead. The sulphuric acid displaces the other acids, leaving a solution containing sulphates only. It also, by its dehydrating action, renders silica from silicates insoluble.]
[Note 2: Unless proper precautions are taken to insure the correct concentrations of acid the copper will not precipitate quant.i.tatively on the aluminium foil; hence care must be taken to follow directions carefully at this point. Lead and silver have been almost completely removed as sulphate and chloride respectively, or they too would be precipitated on the aluminium. Bis.m.u.th, though precipitated on aluminium, has no effect on the a.n.a.lysis. a.r.s.enic and antimony precipitate on aluminium and would interfere with the t.i.tration if allowed to remain in the lower state of oxidation.]
[Note 3: Bromine is added to oxidize a.r.s.enious and antimonious compounds from the original sample, and to oxidize nitrous acid formed by the action of nitric acid on copper and copper sulphide.]
[Note 4: This reaction can be carried out in the presence of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids as well as acetic acid, but in the presence of these strong acids a.r.s.enic and antimonic acids may react with the hydriodic acid produced with the liberation of free iodine, thereby reversing the process and introducing an error.]
DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY IN STIBNITE
Stibnite is native antimony sulphide. Nearly pure samples of this mineral are easily obtainable and should be used for practice, since many impurities, notably iron, seriously interfere with the accurate determination of the antimony by iodometric methods. It is, moreover, essential that the directions with respect to amounts of reagents employed and concentration of solutions should be followed closely.
PROCEDURE.--Grind the mineral with great care, and weigh out two portions of 0.35-0.40 gram into small, dry beakers (100 cc.).
Cover the beakers and pour over the stibnite 5 cc. of concentrated hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) and warm gently on the water bath (Note 1). When the residue is white, add to each beaker 2 grams of powdered tartaric acid (Note 2). Warm the solution on the water bath for ten minutes longer, dilute the solution very cautiously by adding water in portions of 5 cc., stopping if the solution turns red. It is possible that no coloration will appear, in which case cautiously continue the dilution to 125 cc. If a red precipitate or coloration does appear, warm the solution until it is colorless, and again dilute cautiously to a total volume of 125 cc. and boil for a minute (Note 3).
If a white precipitate of the oxychloride separates during dilution (which should not occur if the directions are followed), it is best to discard the determination and to start anew.
Carefully neutralize most of the acid with ammonium hydroxide solution (sp. gr. 0.96), but leave it distinctly acid (Note 4). Dissolve 3 grams of sodium bicarbonate in 200 cc. of water in a 500 cc. beaker, and pour the cold solution of the antimony chloride into this, avoiding loss by effervescence. Make sure that the solution contains an excess of the bicarbonate, and then add 1 cc. or 2 cc. of starch solution and t.i.trate with iodine solution to the appearance of the blue, avoiding excess (Notes 5 and 6).
From the corrected volume of the iodine solution required to oxidize the antimony, calculate the percentage of antimony (Sb) in the stibnite.
[Note 1: Antimony chloride is volatile with steam from its concentrated solutions; hence these solutions must not be boiled until they have been diluted.]
[Note 2: Antimony salts, such as the chloride, are readily hydrolyzed, and compounds such as SbOCl are formed which are often relatively insoluble; but in the presence of tartaric acid compounds with complex ions are formed, and these are soluble. An excess of hydrochloric acid also prevents precipitation of the oxychloride because the H^{+} ions from the acid lessen the dissociation of the water and thus prevent any considerable hydrolysis.]
[Note 3: The action of hydrochloric acid upon the sulphide sets free sulphureted hydrogen, a part of which is held in solution by the acid.
This is usually expelled by the heating upon the water bath; but if it is not wholly driven out, a point is reached during dilution at which the antimony sulphide, being no longer held in solution by the acid, separates. If the dilution is immediately stopped and the solution warmed, this sulphide is again brought into solution and at the same time more of the sulphureted hydrogen is expelled. This procedure must be continued until the sulphureted hydrogen is all removed, since it reacts with iodine. If no precipitation of the sulphide occurs, it is an indication that the sulphureted hydrogen was all expelled on solution of the stibnite.]
[Note 4: Ammonium hydroxide is added to neutralize most of the acid, thus lessening the amount of sodium bicarbonate to be added. The ammonia should not neutralize all of the acid.]
[Note 5: The reaction which takes place during t.i.tration may be expressed thus:
Na_{3}SbO_{3} + 2NaHCO_{3} + I_{2} --> Na_{3}SbO_{4} + 2NaI + H_{2}O + 2CO_{2}.]
[Note 6: If the end-point is not permanent, that is, if the blue of the iodo-starch is discharged after standing a few moments, the cause may be an insufficient quant.i.ty of sodium bicarbonate, leaving the solution slightly acid, or a very slight precipitation of an antimony compound which is slowly acted upon by the iodine when the latter is momentarily present in excess. In either case it is better to discard the a.n.a.lysis and to repeat the process, using greater care in the amounts of reagents employed.]
CHLORIMETRY
The processes included under the term !chlorimetry! comprise those employed to determine chlorine, hypochlorites, bromine, and hypobromites. The reagent employed is sodium a.r.s.enite in the presence of sodium bicarbonate. The reaction in the case of the hypochlorites is
NaClO + Na_{3}AsO_{3} --> Na_{3}AsO_{4} + NaCl.
The sodium a.r.s.enite may be prepared from pure a.r.s.enious oxide, as described below, and is stable for considerable periods; but commercial oxide requires resublimation to remove a.r.s.enic sulphide, which may be present in small quant.i.ty. To prepare the solution, dissolve about 5 grams of the powdered oxide, accurately weighed, in 10 cc. of a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, dilute the solution to 300 cc., and make it faintly acid with dilute hydrochloric acid. Add 30 grams of sodium bicarbonate dissolved in a little water, and dilute the solution to exactly 1000 cc. in a measuring flask.
Transfer the solution to a dry liter bottle and mix thoroughly.
It is possible to dissolve the a.r.s.enious oxide directly in a solution of sodium bicarbonate, with gentle warming, but solution in sodium hydroxide takes place much more rapidly, and the excess of the hydroxide is readily neutralized by hydrochloric acid, with subsequent addition of the bicarbonate to maintain neutrality during the t.i.tration.
The indicator required for this process is made by dipping strips of filter paper in a starch solution prepared as described on page 76, to which 1 gram of pota.s.sium iodide has been added. These strips are allowed to drain and spread upon a watch-gla.s.s until dry. When touched by a drop of the solution the paper turns blue until the hypochlorite has all been reduced and an excess of the a.r.s.enite has been added.
DETERMINATION OF THE AVAILABLE CHLORINE IN BLEACHING POWDER
Bleaching powder consists mainly of a calcium compound which is a derivative of both hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids. Its formula is CaClOCl. Its use as a bleaching or disinfecting agent, or as a source of chlorine, depends upon the amount of hypochlorous acid which it yields when treated with a stronger acid. It is customary to express the value of bleaching powder in terms of "available chlorine," by which is meant the chlorine present as hypochlorite, but not the chlorine present as chloride.
PROCEDURE.--Weigh out from a stoppered test tube into a porcelain mortar about 3.5 grams of bleaching powder (Note 1). Triturate the powder in the mortar with successive portions of water until it is well ground and wash the contents into a 500 cc. measuring flask (Note 2). Fill the flask to the mark with water and shake thoroughly.
Measure off 25 cc. of this semi-solution in a measuring flask, or pipette, observing the precaution that the liquid removed shall contain approximately its proportion of suspended matter.
Empty the flask or pipette into a beaker and wash it out. Run in the a.r.s.enite solution from a burette until no further reaction takes place on the starch-iodide paper when touched by a drop of the solution of bleaching powder. Repeat the t.i.tration, using a second 25 cc. portion.
From the volume of solution required to react with the bleaching powder, calculate the percentage of available chlorine in the latter, a.s.suming the t.i.tration reaction to be that between chlorine and a.r.s.enious oxide:
As_{4}O_{6} + 4Cl_{2} + 4H_{2}O --> 2As_{2}O_{5} + 8HCl
Note that only one twentieth of the original weight of bleaching powder enters into the reaction.
[Note 1: The powder must be triturated until it is fine, otherwise the lumps will inclose calcium hypochlorite, which will fail to react with the a.r.s.enious acid. The clear supernatant liquid gives percentages which are below, and the sediment percentages which are above, the average. The liquid measured off should, therefore, carry with it its proper proportion of the sediment, so far as that can be brought about by shaking the solution just before removal of the aliquot part for t.i.tration.]
[Note 2: Bleaching powder is easily acted upon by the carbonic acid in the air, which liberates the weak hypochlorous acid. This, of course, results in a loss of available chlorine. The original material for a.n.a.lysis should be kept in a closed container and protected form the air as far as possible. It is difficult to obtain a.n.a.lytical samples which are accurately representative of a large quant.i.ty of the bleaching powder. The procedure, as outlined, will yield results which are sufficiently exact for technical purposes.]
III. PRECIPITATION METHODS
DETERMINATION OF SILVER BY THE THIOCYANATE PROCESS
The addition of a solution of pota.s.sium or ammonium thiocyanate to one of silver in nitric acid causes a deposition of silver thiocyanate as a white, curdy precipitate. If ferric nitrate is also present, the slightest excess of the thiocyanate over that required to combine with the silver is indicated by the deep red which is characteristic of the thiocyanate test for iron.
The reactions involved are:
AgNO_{3} + KSCN --> AgSCN + KNO_{3}, 3KSCN + Fe(NO_{3})_{3} --> Fe(SCN)_{3} + 3KNO_{3}.