PROCEDURE.--Weigh out two portions of sodium chloride of about 0.25-0.3 gram each and proceed with the precipitation of the silver chloride as described under Method A above. When the chloride is ready for filtration prepare two 9 cm. washed paper filters (see Appendix).
Pour the liquid above the precipitates through the filters, wash twice by decantation and transfer the precipitates to the filters, finally washing them until free from silver solution as described. The funnel should then be covered with a moistened filter paper by stretching it over the top and edges, to which it will adhere on drying. It should be properly labeled with the student"s name and desk number, and then placed in a drying closet, at a temperature of about 100-110C., until completely dry.
The perfectly dry filter is then opened over a circular piece of clean, smooth, glazed paper about six inches in diameter, placed upon a larger piece about twelve inches in diameter. The precipitate is removed from the filter as completely as possible by rubbing the sides gently together, or by sc.r.a.ping them cautiously with a feather which has been cut close to the quill and is slightly stiff (Note 1). In either case, care must be taken not to rub off any considerable quant.i.ty of the paper, nor to lose silver chloride in the form of dust. Cover the precipitate on the glazed paper with a watch-gla.s.s to prevent loss of fine particles and to protect it from dust from the air. Fold the filter paper carefully, roll it into a small cone, and wind loosely around !the top! a piece of small platinum wire (Note 2).
Hold the filter by the wire over a small porcelain crucible (which has been cleaned, ignited, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed), ignite it, and allow the ash to fall into the crucible. Place the crucible upon a clean clay triangle, on its side, and ignite, with a low flame well at its base, until all the carbon of the filter has been consumed. Allow the crucible to cool, add two drops of concentrated nitric acid and one drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and heat !very cautiously!, to avoid spattering, until the acids have been expelled; then transfer the main portion of the precipitate from the glazed paper to the cooled crucible, placing the latter on the larger piece of glazed paper and brushing the precipitate from the smaller piece into it, sweeping off all particles belonging to the determination.
Moisten the precipitate with two drops of concentrated nitric acid and one drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and again heat with great caution until the acids are expelled and the precipitate is white, when the temperature is slowly raised until the silver chloride just begins to fuse at the edges (Note 3). The crucible is then cooled in a desiccator and weighed, after which the heating (without the addition of acids) is repeated, and it is again weighed. This must be continued until the weight is constant within 0.0003 gram in two consecutive weighings. Deduct the weight of the crucible, and calculate the percentage of chlorine in the sample of sodium chloride taken for a.n.a.lysis.
[Note 1: The separation of the silver chloride from the filter is essential, since the burning carbon of the paper would reduce a considerable quant.i.ty of the precipitate to metallic silver, and its complete reconversion to the chloride within the crucible, by means of acids, would be accompanied by some difficulty. The small amount of silver reduced from the chloride adhering to the filter paper after separating the bulk of the precipitate, and igniting the paper as prescribed, can be dissolved in nitric acid, and completely reconverted to chloride by hydrochloric acid. The subsequent addition of the two acids to the main portion of the precipitate restores the chlorine to any chloride which may have been partially reduced by the sunlight. The excess of the acids is volatilized by heating.]
[Note 2: The platinum wire is wrapped around the top of the filter during its incineration to avoid contact with any reduced silver from the reduction of the precipitate. If the wire were placed nearer the apex, such contact could hardly be avoided.]
[Note 3: Silver chloride should not be heated to complete fusion, since a slight loss by volatilization is possible at high temperatures. The temperature of fusion is not always sufficient to destroy filter shreds; hence these should not be allowed to contaminate the precipitate.]
DETERMINATION OF IRON AND OF SULPHUR IN FERROUS AMMONIUM SULPHATE,
FESO_{4}.(NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4}.6H_{2}O
DETERMINATION OF IRON
PROCEDURE.--Weigh out into beakers (200-250 cc.) two portions of the sample (Note 1) of about 1 gram each and dissolve these in 50 cc. of water, to which 1 cc. of dilute hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.12) has been added (Note 2). Heat the solution to boiling, and while at the boiling point add concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42), !drop by drop! (noting the volume used), until the brown coloration, which appears after the addition of a part of the nitric acid, gives place to a yellow or red (Note 3). Avoid a large excess of nitric acid, but be sure that the action is complete. Pour this solution cautiously into about 200 cc. of water, containing a slight excess of ammonia.
Calculate for this purpose the amount of aqueous ammonia required to neutralize the hydrochloric and nitric acids added (see Appendix for data), and also to precipitate the iron as ferric hydroxide from the weight of the ferrous ammonium sulphate taken for a.n.a.lysis, a.s.suming it to be pure (Note 4). The volume thus calculated will be in excess of that actually required for precipitation, since the acids are in part consumed in the oxidation process, or are volatilized. Heat the solution to boiling, and allow the precipitated ferric hydroxide to settle. Decant the clear liquid through a washed filter (9 cm.), keeping as much of the precipitate in the beaker as possible. Wash twice by decantation with 100 cc. of hot water. Reserve the filtrate.
Dissolve the iron from the filter with hot, dilute hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.12), adding it in small portions, using as little as possible and noting the volume used. Collect the solution in the beaker in which precipitation took place. Add 1 cc. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42), boil for a few moments, and again pour into a calculated excess of ammonia.
Wash the precipitate twice by decantation, and finally transfer it to the original filter. Wash continuously with hot water until finally 3 cc. of the washings, acidified with nitric acid (Note 5), show no evidences of the presence of chlorides when tested with silver nitrate. The filtrate and washings are combined with those from the first precipitation and treated for the determination of sulphur, as prescribed on page 112.
[Note 1: If a selection of pure material for a.n.a.lysis is to be made, crystals which are cloudy are to be avoided on account of loss of water of crystallization; and also those which are red, indicating the presence of ferric iron. If, on the other hand, the value of an average sample of material is desired, it is preferable to grind the whole together, mix thoroughly, and take a sample from the mixture for a.n.a.lysis.]
[Note 2: When aqueous solutions of ferrous compounds are heated in the air, oxidation of the Fe^{++} ions to Fe^{+++} ions readily occurs in the absence of free acid. The H^{+} and OH^{-} ions from water are involved in the oxidation process and the result is, in effect, the formation of some ferric hydroxide which tends to separate. Moreover, at the boiling temperature, the ferric sulphate produced by the oxidation hydrolyzes in part with the formation of a basic ferric sulphate, which also tends to separate from solution. The addition of the hydrochloric acid prevents the formation of ferric hydroxide, and so far reduces the ionization of the water that the hydrolysis of the ferric sulphate is also prevented, and no precipitation occurs on heating.]
[Note 3: The nitric acid, after attaining a moderate strength, oxidizes the Fe^{++} ions to Fe^{+++} ions with the formation of an intermediate nitroso-compound similar in character to that formed in the "ring-test" for nitrates. The nitric oxide is driven out by heat, and the solution then shows by its color the presence of ferric compounds. A drop of the oxidized solution should be tested on a watch-gla.s.s with pota.s.sium ferricyanide, to insure a complete oxidation. This oxidation of the iron is necessary, since Fe^{++} ions are not completely precipitated by ammonia.
The ionic changes which are involved in this oxidation are perhaps most simply expressed by the equation
3Fe^{++} + NO_{3}^{-}+ 4H^{+} --> 3Fe^{+++} + 2H_{2}O + NO,
the H^{+} ions coming from the acid in the solution, in this case either the nitric or the hydrochloric acid. The full equation on which this is based may be written thus:
6FeSO_{4} + 2HNO_{3} + 6HCl --> 2Fe_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} + 2FeCl_{3} + 2NO + 4H_{2}O,
a.s.suming that only enough nitric acid is added to complete the oxidation.]
[Note 4: The ferric hydroxide precipitate tends to carry down some sulphuric acid in the form of basic ferric sulphate. This tendency is lessened if the solution of the iron is added to an excess of OH^{-} ions from the ammonium hydroxide, since under these conditions immediate and complete precipitation of the ferric hydroxide ensues.
A gradual neutralization with ammonia would result in the local formation of a neutral solution within the liquid, and subsequent deposition of a basic sulphate as a consequence of a local deficiency of OH^{-} ions from the NH_{4}OH and a partial hydrolysis of the ferric salt. Even with this precaution the entire absence of sulphates from the first iron precipitate is not a.s.sured. It is, therefore, redissolved and again thrown down by ammonia. The organic matter of the filter paper may occasion a partial reduction of the iron during solution, with consequent possibility of incomplete subsequent precipitation with ammonia. The nitric acid is added to reoxidize this iron.
To avoid errors arising from the solvent action of ammoniacal liquids upon gla.s.s, the iron precipitate should be filtered without unnecessary delay.]
[Note 5: The washings from the ferric hydroxide are acidified with nitric acid, before testing with silver nitrate, to destroy the ammonia which is a solvent of silver chloride.
The use of suction to promote filtration and washing is permissible, though not prescribed. The precipitate should not be allowed to dry during the washing.]
!Ignition of the Iron Precipitate!
Heat a platinum or porcelain crucible, cool it in a desiccator and weigh, repeating until a constant weight is obtained.
Fold the top of the filter paper over the moist precipitate of ferric hydroxide and transfer it cautiously to the crucible. Wipe the inside of the funnel with a small fragment of washed filter paper, if necessary, and place the paper in the crucible.
Incline the crucible on its side, on a triangle supported on a ring-stand, and stand the cover on edge at the mouth of the crucible.
Place a burner below the front edge of the crucible, using a low flame and protecting it from drafts of air by means of a chimney. The heat from the burner is thus reflected into the crucible and dries the precipitate without danger of loss as the result of a sudden generation of steam within the ma.s.s of ferric hydroxide. As the drying progresses the burner may be gradually moved toward the base of the crucible and the flame increased until the paper of the filter begins to char and finally to smoke, as the volatile matter is expelled. This is known as "smoking off" a filter, and the temperature should not be raised sufficiently high during this process to cause the paper to ignite, as the air currents produced by the flame of the blazing paper may carry away particles of the precipitate.
When the paper is fully charred, move the burner to the base of the crucible and raise the temperature to the full heat of the burner for fifteen minutes, with the crucible still inclined on its side, but without the cover (Note 1). Finally set the crucible upright in the triangle, cover it, and heat at the full temperature of a blast lamp or other high temperature burner. Cool and weigh in the usual manner (Note 2). Repeat the strong heating until the weight is constant within 0.0003 gram.
From the weight of ferric oxide (Fe_{2}O_{3}) calculate the percentage of iron (Fe) in the sample (Note 3).
[Note 1: These directions for the ignition of the precipitate must be closely followed. A ready access of atmospheric oxygen is of special importance to insure the reoxidation to ferric oxide of any iron which may be reduced to magnetic oxide (Fe_{3}O_{4}) during the combustion of the filter. The final heating over the blast lamp is essential for the complete expulsion of the last traces of water from the hydroxide.]
[Note 2: Ignited ferric oxide is somewhat hygroscopic. On this account the weighings must be promptly completed after removal from the desiccator. In all weighings after the first it is well to place the weights upon the balance-pan before removing the crucible from the desiccator. It is then only necessary to move the rider to obtain the weight.]
[Note 3: The gravimetric determination of aluminium or chromium is comparable with that of iron just described, with the additional precaution that the solution must be boiled until it contains but a very slight excess of ammonia, since the hydroxides of aluminium and chromium are more soluble than ferric hydroxide.
The most important properties of these hydroxides, from a quant.i.tative standpoint, other than those mentioned, are the following: All are precipitable by the hydroxides of sodium and pota.s.sium, but always inclose some of the precipitant, and should be reprecipitated with ammonium hydroxide before ignition to oxides. Chromium and aluminium hydroxides dissolve in an excess of the caustic alkalies and form anions, probably of the formula AlO_2^{-} and CrO_{2}^{-}. Chromium hydroxide is reprecipitated from this solution on boiling. When first precipitated the hydroxides are all readily soluble in acids, but aluminium hydroxide dissolves with considerable difficulty after standing or boiling for some time. The precipitation of the hydroxides is promoted by the presence of ammonium chloride, but is partially or entirely prevented by the presence of tartaric or citric acids, glycerine, sugars, and some other forms of soluble organic matter.
The hydroxides yield on ignition an oxide suitable for weighing (Al_{2}O_{3}, Cr_{2}O_{3}, Fe_{2}O_{3}).]
DETERMINATION OF SULPHUR
PROCEDURE.--Add to the combined filtrates from the ferric hydroxide about 0.6 gram of anhydrous sodium carbonate; cover the beaker, and then add dilute hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.12) in moderate excess and evaporate to dryness on the water bath. Add 10 cc. of concentrated hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) to the residue, and again evaporate to dryness on the bath. Dissolve the residue in water, filter if not clear, transfer to a 700 cc. beaker, dilute to about 400 cc., and cautiously add hydrochloric acid until the solution shows a distinctly acid reaction (Note 1). Heat the solution to boiling, and add !very slowly! and with constant stirring, 20 cc. in excess of the calculated amount of a hot barium chloride solution, containing about 20 grams BaCl_{2}.2H_{2}O per liter (Notes 2 and 3). Continue the boiling for about two minutes, allow the precipitate to settle, and decant the liquid at the end of half an hour (Note 4). Replace the beaker containing the original filtrate by a clean beaker, wash the precipitated sulphate by decantation with hot water, and subsequently upon the filter until it is freed from chlorides, testing the washings as described in the determination of iron. The filter is then transferred to a platinum or porcelain crucible and ignited, as described above, until the weight is constant (Note 5). From the weight of barium sulphate (BaSO_{4}) obtained, calculate the percentage of sulphur (S) in the sample.
[Note 1: Barium sulphate is slightly soluble in hydrochloric acid, even dilute, probably as a result of the reduction in the degree of dissociation of sulphuric acid in the presence of the H^{+} ions of the hydrochloric acid, and possibly because of the formation of a complex anion made up of barium and chlorine; hence only the smallest excess should be added over the amount required to acidify the solution.]
[Note 2: The ionic changes involved in the precipitation of barium sulphate are very simple:
Ba^{++} + SO_{4}^{--} --> [BaSO_{4}]
This case affords one of the best ill.u.s.trations of the effect of an excess of a precipitant in decreasing the solubility of a precipitate.
If the conditions are considered which exist at the moment when just enough of the Ba^{++} ions have been added to correspond to the SO_{4}^{--} ions in the solution, it will be seen that nearly all of the barium sulphate has been precipitated, and that the small amount which then remains in the solution which is in contact with the precipitate must represent a saturated solution for the existing temperature, and that this solution is comparable with a solution of sugar to which more sugar has been added than will dissolve. It should be borne in mind that the quant.i.ty of barium sulphate in this !saturated solution is a constant quant.i.ty! for the existing conditions. The dissolved barium sulphate, like any electrolyte, is dissociated, and the equilibrium conditions may be expressed thus:
(!Conc"n Ba^{++} x Conc"n SO_{4}^{--})/(Conc"n BaSO_{4}) = Const.!,
and since !Conc"n BaSO_{4}! for the saturated solution has a constant value (which is very small), it may be eliminated, when the expression becomes !Conc"n Ba^{++} x Conc"n SO_{4}^{--} = Const.!, which is the "solubility product" of BaSO_{4}. If, now, an excess of the precipitant, a soluble barium salt, is added in the form of a relatively concentrated solution (the slight change of volume of a few cubic centimeters may be disregarded for the present discussion) the concentration of the Ba^{++} ions is much increased, and as a consequence the !Conc"n SO_{4}! must decrease in proportion if the value of the expression is to remain constant, which is a requisite condition if the law of ma.s.s action upon which our argument depends holds true. In other words, SO_{4}^{--} ions must combine with some of the added Ba^{++} ions to form [BaSO_{4}]; but it will be recalled that the solution is already saturated with BaSO_{4}, and this freshly formed quant.i.ty must, therefore, separate and add itself to the precipitate. This is exactly what is desired in order to insure more complete precipitation and greater accuracy, and leads to the conclusion that the larger the excess of the precipitant added the more successful the a.n.a.lysis; but a practical limit is placed upon the quant.i.ty of the precipitant which may be properly added by other conditions, as stated in the following note.]