BEHAVIOR OF ORGANIC INDICATORS
The indicators in most common use for acid and alkali t.i.trations are methyl orange, litmus, and phenolphthalein.
In the following discussion of the principles underlying the behavior of the indicators as a cla.s.s, methyl orange and phenolphthalein will be taken as types. It has just been pointed out that indicators are bodies of complicated structure. In the case of the two indicators named, the changes which they undergo have been carefully studied by Stieglitz (!J. Am. Chem. Soc.!, 25, 1112) and others, and it appears that the changes involved are of two sorts: First, a rearrangement of the atoms within the molecule, such as often occurs in organic compounds; and, second, ionic changes. The intermolecular changes cannot appropriately be discussed here, as they involve a somewhat detailed knowledge of the cla.s.sification and general behavior of organic compounds; they will, therefore, be merely alluded to, and only the ionic changes followed.
Methyl orange is a representative of the group of indicators which, in aqueous solutions, behave as weak bases. The yellow color which it imparts to solutions is ascribed to the presence of the undissociated base. If an acid, such as HCl, is added to such a solution, the acid reacts with the indicator (neutralizes it) and a salt is formed, as indicated by the equation:
(M.o.)^{+}, OH^{-} + H^{+}, Cl^{-} --> (M.o.)^{+} Cl^{-} + (H_{2}O).
This salt ionizes into (M.o.)^{+} (using this abbreviation for the positive complex) and Cl^{-}; but simultaneously with this ionization there appears to be an internal rearrangement of the atoms which results in the production of a cation which may be designated as (M".o".)^{+}, and it is this which imparts a characteristic red color to the solution. As these changes occur in the presence of even a very small excess of acid (that is, of H^{+} ions), it serves as the desired index of their presence in the solution. If, now, an alkali, such as NaOH, is added to this reddened solution, the reverse series of changes takes place. As soon as the free acid present is neutralized, the slightest excess of sodium hydroxide, acting as a strong base, sets free the weak, little-dissociated base of the indicator, and at the moment of its formation it reverts, because of the rearrangement of the atoms, to the yellow form:
OH^{-} + (M".o".)^{+} --> [M".o".OH] --> [M.o.OH].
Phenolphthalein, on the other hand, is a very weak, little-dissociated acid, which is colorless in neutral aqueous solution or in the presence of free H^{+} ions. When an alkali is added to such a solution, even in slight excess, the anion of the salt which has formed from the acid of the indicator undergoes a rearrangement of the atoms, and a new ion, (Ph")^{+}, is formed, which imparts a pink color to the solution:
H^{+}, (Ph)^{-} + Na^{+}, OH^{-} --> (H_{2}O) + Na^{+}, (Ph)^{-} --> Na^{+}, (Ph")^{-}
The addition of the slightest excess of an acid to this solution, on the other hand, occasions first the reversion to the colorless ion and then the setting free of the undissociated acid of the indicator:
H^{+}, (Ph")^{-} --> H^{+}, (Ph)^{-} --> (HPh).
Of the common indicators methyl orange is the most sensitive toward alkalies and phenolphthalein toward acids; the others occupy intermediate positions. That methyl orange should be most sensitive toward alkalies is evident from the following considerations: Methyl orange is a weak base and, therefore, but little dissociated. It should, then, be formed in the undissociated condition as soon as even a slight excess of OH^{-} ions is present in the solution, and there should be a prompt change from red to yellow as outlined above. On the other hand, it should be an unsatisfactory indicator for use with weak acids (acetic acid, for example) because the salts which it forms with such acids are, like all salts of that type, hydrolyzed to a considerable extent. This hydrolytic change is ill.u.s.trated by the equation:
(M.o.)^{+} C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}^{-} + H^{+}, OH^{-} --> [M.o.OH] + H^{+}, C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}^{-}.
Comparison of this equation with that on page 30 will make it plain that hydrolysis is just the reverse of neutralization and must, accordingly, interfere with it. Salts of methyl orange with weak acids are so far hydrolyzed that the end-point is uncertain, and methyl orange cannot be used in the t.i.tration of such acids, while with the very weak acids, such as carbonic acid or hydrogen sulphide (hydrosulphuric acid), the salts formed with methyl orange are, in effect, completely hydrolyzed (i.e., no neutralization occurs), and methyl orange is accordingly scarcely affected by these acids. This explains its usefulness, as referred to later, for the t.i.tration of strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid, even in the presence of carbonates or sulphides in solution.
Phenolphthalein, on the other hand, should be, as it is, the best of the common indicators for use with weak acids. For, since it is itself a weak acid, it is very little dissociated, and its nearly undissociated, colorless molecules are promptly formed as soon as there is any free acid (that is, free H^{+} ions) in the solution.
This indicator cannot, however, be successfully used with weak bases, even ammonium hydroxide; for, since it is weak acid, the salts which it forms with weak alkalies are easily hydrolyzed, and as a consequence of this hydrolysis the change of color is not sharp.
This indicator can, however, be successfully used with strong bases, because the salts which it forms with such bases are much less hydrolyzed and because the excess of OH^{-} ions from these bases also diminishes the hydrolytic action of water.
This indicator is affected by even so weak an acid as carbonic acid, which must be removed by boiling the solution before t.i.tration. It is the indicator most generally employed for the t.i.tration of organic acids.
In general, it may be stated that when a strong acid, such as hydrochloric, sulphuric or nitric acid, is t.i.trated against a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide, pota.s.sium hydroxide, or barium hydroxide, any of these indicators may be used, since very little hydrolysis ensues. It has been noted above that the color change does not occur exactly at theoretical neutrality, from which it follows that no two indicators will show exactly the same end-point when acids and alkalis are brought together. It is plain, therefore, that the same indicator must be employed for both standardization and a.n.a.lysis, and that, if this is done, accurate results are obtainable.
The following table (Note 1) ill.u.s.trates the variations in the volume of an alkali solution (tenth-normal sodium hydroxide) required to produce an alkaline end-point when run into 10 cc. of tenth-normal sulphuric acid, diluted with 50 cc. of water, using five drops of each of the different indicator solutions.
==================================================================== | | | | INDICATOR | N/10 | N/10 |COLOR IN ACID|COLOR IN ALKA- | H_{2}SO_{4}| NaOH |SOLUTION |LINE SOLUTION _______________|____________|__________|_____________|______________ | cc. | cc. | cc. | Methyl orange | 10 | 9.90 | Red | Yellow Lacmoid | 10 | 10.00 | Red | Blue Litmus | 10 | 10.00 | Red | Blue Rosalic acid | 10 | 10.07 | Yellow | Pink Phenolphthalein| 10 | 10.10 | Colorless | Pink ====================================================================
It should also be stated that there are occasionally secondary changes, other than those outlined above, which depend upon the temperature and concentration of the solutions in which the indicators are used. These changes may influence the sensitiveness of an indicator. It is important, therefore, to take pains to use approximately the same volume of solution when standardizing that is likely to be employed in a.n.a.lysis; and when it is necessary, as is often the case, to t.i.trate the solution at boiling temperature, the standardization should take place under the same conditions. It is also obvious that since some acid or alkali is required to react with the indicator itself, the amount of indicator used should be uniform and not excessive. Usually a few drops of solution will suffice.
The foregoing statements with respect to the behavior of indicators present the subject in its simplest terms. Many substances other than those named may be employed, and they have been carefully studied to determine the exact concentration of H^{+} ions at which the color change of each occurs. It is thus possible to select an indicator for a particular purpose with considerable accuracy. As data of this nature do not belong in an introductory manual, reference is made to the following papers or books in which a more extended treatment of the subject may be found:
Washburn, E.W., Principles of Physical Chemistry (McGraw-Hill Book Co.), (Second Edition, 1921), pp. 380-387.
Prideaux, E.B.R., The Theory and Use of Indicators (Constable & Co., Ltd.), (1917).
Salm, E., A Study of Indicators, !Z. physik. Chem.!, 57 (1906), 471-501.
Stieglitz, J., Theories of Indicators, !J. Am. Chem. Soc.!, 25 (1903), 1112-1127.
Noyes, A.A., Quant.i.tative Applications of the Theory of Indicators to Volumetric a.n.a.lysis, !J. Am. Chem. Soc.!, 32 (1911), 815-861.
Bjerrum, N., General Discussion, !Z. a.n.a.l. Chem.!, 66 (1917), 13-28 and 81-95.
Ostwald, W., Colloid Chemistry of Indicators, !Z. Chem. Ind.
Kolloide!, 10 (1912), 132-146.
[Note 1: Glaser, !Indikatoren der Acidimetrie und Alkalimetrie!.
Wiesbaden, 1901.]
PREPARATION OF INDICATOR SOLUTIONS
A !methyl orange solution! for use as an indicator is commonly made by dissolving 0.05-0.1 gram of the compound (also known as Orange III) in a few cubic centimeters of alcohol and diluting with water to 100 cc.
A good grade of material should be secured. It can be successfully used for the t.i.tration of hydrochloric, nitric, sulphuric, phosphoric, and sulphurous acids, and is particularly useful in the determination of bases, such as sodium, pota.s.sium, barium, calcium, and ammonium hydroxides, and even many of the weak organic bases. It can also be used for the determination, by t.i.tration with a standard solution of a strong acid, of the salts of very weak acids, such as carbonates, sulphides, a.r.s.enites, borates, and silicates, because the weak acids which are liberated do not affect the indicator, and the reddening of the solution does not take place until an excess of the strong acid is added. It should be used in cold, not too dilute, solutions. Its sensitiveness is lessened in the presence of considerable quant.i.ties of the salts of the alkalies.
A !phenolphthalein solution! is prepared by dissolving 1 gram of the pure compound in 100 cc. of 95 per cent alcohol. This indicator is particularly valuable in the determination of weak acids, especially organic acids. It cannot be used with weak bases, even ammonia. It is affected by carbonic acid, which must, therefore, be removed by boiling when other acids are to be measured. It can be used in hot solutions. Some care is necessary to keep the volume of the solutions to be t.i.trated approximately uniform in standardization and in a.n.a.lysis, and this volume should not in general exceed 125-150 cc. for the best results, since the compounds formed by the indicator undergo changes in very dilute solution which lessen its sensitiveness.
The preparation of a !solution of litmus! which is suitable for use as an indicator involves the separation from the commercial litmus of azolithmine, the true coloring principle. Soluble litmus tablets are often obtainable, but the litmus as commonly supplied to the market is mixed with calcium carbonate or sulphate and compressed into lumps. To prepare a solution, these are powdered and treated two or three times with alcohol, which dissolves out certain const.i.tuents which cause a troublesome intermediate color if not removed. The alcohol is decanted and drained off, after which the litmus is extracted with hot water until exhausted. The solution is allowed to settle for some time, the clear liquid siphoned off, concentrated to one-third its volume and acetic acid added in slight excess. It is then concentrated to a sirup, and a large excess of 95 per cent. alcohol added to it. This precipitates the blue coloring matter, which is filtered off, washed with alcohol, and finally dissolved in a small volume of water and diluted until about three drops of the solution added to 50 cc. of water just produce a distinct color. This solution must be kept in an unstoppered bottle. It should be protected from dust by a loose plug of absorbent cotton. If kept in a closed bottle it soon undergoes a reduction and loses its color, which, however, is often restored by exposure to the air.
Litmus can be employed successfully with the strong acids and bases, and also with ammonium hydroxide, although the salts of the latter influence the indicator unfavorably if present in considerable concentration. It may be employed with some of the stronger organic acids, but the use of phenolphthalein is to be preferred.
PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS
!Hydrochloric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide. Approximate Strength!, 0.5 N
PROCEDURE.--Measure out 40 cc. of concentrated, pure hydrochloric acid into a clean liter bottle, and dilute with distilled water to an approximate volume of 1000 cc. Shake the solution vigorously for a full minute to insure uniformity. Be sure that the bottle is not too full to permit of a thorough mixing, since lack of care at this point will be the cause of much wasted time (Note 1).
Weigh out, upon a rough balance, 23 grams of sodium hydroxide (Note 2). Dissolve the hydroxide in water in a beaker. Pour the solution into a liter bottle and dilute, as above, to approximately 1000 cc.
This bottle should preferably have a rubber stopper, as the hydroxide solution attacks the gla.s.s of the ground joint of a gla.s.s stopper, and may cement the stopper to the bottle. Shake the solution as described above.
[Note 1: The original solutions are prepared of a strength greater than 0.5 N, as they are more readily diluted than strengthened if later adjustment is desired.
Too much care cannot be taken to insure perfect uniformity of solutions before standardization, and thoroughness in this respect will, as stated, often avoid much waste of time. A solution once thoroughly mixed remains uniform.]
[Note 2: Commercial sodium hydroxide is usually impure and always contains more or less carbonate; an allowance is therefore made for this impurity by placing the weight taken at 23 grams per liter. If the hydroxide is known to be pure, a lesser amount (say 21 grams) will suffice.]
COMPARISON OF ACID AND ALKALI SOLUTIONS
PROCEDURE.--Rinse a previously calibrated burette three times with the hydrochloric acid solution, using 10 cc. each time, and allowing the liquid to run out through the tip to displace all water and air from that part of the burette. Then fill the burette with the acid solution. Carry out the same procedure with a second burette, using the sodium hydroxide solution.
The acid solution may be placed in a plain or in a gla.s.s-stoppered burette as may be more convenient, but the alkaline solution should never be allowed to remain long in a gla.s.s-stoppered burette, as it tends to cement the stopper to the burette, rendering it useless. It is preferable to use a plain burette for this solution.
When the burettes are ready for use and all air bubbles displaced from the tip (see Note 2, page 17) note the exact position of the liquid in each, and record the readings in the notebook. (Consult page 188.) Run out from the burette into a beaker about 40 cc. of the acid and add two drops of a solution of methyl orange; dilute the acid to about 80 cc. and run out alkali solution from the other burette, stirring constantly, until the pink has given place to a yellow. Wash down the sides of the beaker with a little distilled water if the solution has spattered upon them, return the beaker to the acid burette, and add acid to restore the pink; continue these alternations until the point is accurately fixed at which a single drop of either solutions served to produce a distinct change of color. Select as the final end-point the appearance of the faintest pink tinge which can be recognized, or the disappearance of this tinge, leaving a pure yellow; but always t.i.trate to the same point (Note 1). If the t.i.tration has occupied more than the three minutes required for draining the sides of the burette, the final reading may be taken immediately and recorded in the notebook.