[Note 3: Attention has already been called to the fact that the color changes in the different indicators occur at varying concentrations of H^{+} or OH^{-} ions. They do not indicate exact theoretical neutrality, but a particular indicator always shows its color change at a particular concentration of H^{+} or OH^{-} ions. The results of t.i.tration with a given indicator are, therefore, comparable. As a matter of fact, a small error is involved in the procedure as outlined above. The comparison of the acid and alkali solutions was made, using methyl orange as an indicator, while the t.i.tration of the oxalic acid is made with the use of phenolphthalein. For our present purposes the small error may be neglected but, if time permits, the student is recommended to standardize the alkali solution against one of the substances named in Note 1, page 41, and also to ascertain the comparative value of the acid and alkali solutions, using phenolphthalein as indicator throughout, and conducting the t.i.trations as described above. This will insure complete accuracy.]
II. OXIDATION PROCESSES
GENERAL DISCUSSION
In the oxidation processes of volumetric a.n.a.lysis standard solutions of oxidizing agents and of reducing agents take the place of the acid and alkali solutions of the neutralization processes already studied.
Just as an acid solution was the princ.i.p.al reagent in alkalimetry, and the alkali solution used only to make certain of the end-point, the solution of the oxidizing agent is the princ.i.p.al reagent for the t.i.tration of substances exerting a reducing action. It is, in general, true that oxidizable substances are determined by !direct! t.i.tration, while oxidizing substances are determined by !indirect! t.i.tration.
The important oxidizing agents employed in volumetric solutions are pota.s.sium bichromate, pota.s.sium permangenate, pota.s.sium ferricyanide, iodine, ferric chloride, and sodium hypochlorite.
The important reducing agents which are used in the form of standard solutions are ferrous sulphate (or ferrous ammonium sulphate), oxalic acid, sodium thiosulphate, stannous chloride, a.r.s.enious acid, and pota.s.sium cyanide. Other reducing agents, as sulphurous acid, sulphureted hydrogen, and zinc (nascent hydrogen), may take part in the processes, but not as standard solutions.
The most important combinations among the foregoing are: Pota.s.sium bichromate and ferrous salts; pota.s.sium permanganate and ferrous salts; pota.s.sium permanganate and oxalic acid, or its derivatives; iodine and sodium thiosulphate; hypochlorites and a.r.s.enious acid.
BICHROMATE PROCESS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF IRON
Ferrous salts may be promptly and completely oxidized to ferric salts, even in cold solution, by the addition of pota.s.sium bichromate, provided sufficient acid is present to hold in solution the ferric and chromic compounds which are formed.
The acid may be either hydrochloric or sulphuric, but the former is usually preferred, since it is by far the best solvent for iron and its compounds. The reaction in the presence of hydrochloric acid is as follows:
6FeCl_{2} + K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} + 14HCl --> 6FeCl_{3} + 2CrCl_{3} + 2KCl + 7H_{2}O.
NORMAL SOLUTIONS OF OXIDIZING OR REDUCING AGENTS
It will be recalled that the system of normal solutions is based upon the equivalence of the reagents which they contain to 8 grams of oxygen or 1 gram of hydrogen. A normal solution of an oxidizing agent should, therefore, contain that amount per liter which is equivalent in oxidizing power to 8 grams of oxygen; a normal reducing solution must be equivalent in reducing power to 1 gram of hydrogen. In order to determine what the amount per liter will be it is necessary to know how the reagents enter into reaction. The two solutions to be employed in the process under consideration are those of pota.s.sium bichromate and ferrous sulphate. The reaction between them, in the presence of an excess of sulphuric acid, may be expressed as follows:
6FeSO_{4} + K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} + 7H_{2}SO_{4} --> 3Fe_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} + K_{2}SO_{4} + Cr_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} + 7H_{2}O.
If the compounds of iron and chromium, with which alone we are now concerned, be written in such a way as to show the oxides of these elements in each, they would appear as follows: On the left-hand side of the equation 6(FeO.SO_{3}) and K_{2}O.2CrO_{3}; on the right-hand side, 3(Fe_{2}O_{3}.3SO_{3}) and Cr_{2}O_{3}.3SO_{3}. A careful inspection shows that there are three less oxygen atoms a.s.sociated with chromium atoms on the right-hand side of the equation than on the left-hand, but there are three more oxygen atoms a.s.sociated with iron atoms on the right than on the left. In other words, a molecule of pota.s.sium bichromate has given up three atoms of oxygen for oxidation purposes; i.e., a molecular weight in grams of the bichromate (294.2) will furnish 3 X 16 or 48 grams of oxygen for oxidation purposes.
As this 48 grams is six times 8 grams, the basis of the system, the normal solution of pota.s.sium bichromate should contain per liter one sixth of 294.2 grams or 49.03 grams.
A further inspection of the dissected compounds above shows that six molecules of FeO.SO_{3} were required to react with the three atoms of oxygen from the bichromate. From the two equations
3H_{2} + 3O --> 3H_{2}O 6(FeO.SO_{3}) + 3O --> 3(Fe_{2}O_{3}.3SO_{3})
it is plain that one molecule of ferrous sulphate is equivalent to one atom of hydrogen in reducing power; therefore one molecular weight in grams of ferrous sulphate (151.9) is equivalent to 1 gram of hydrogen. Since the ferrous sulphate crystalline form has the formula FeSO_{4}.7H_{2}O, a normal reducing solution of this crystalline salt should contain 277.9 grams per liter.
PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS
!Approximate Strength 0.1 N!
It is possible to purify commercial pota.s.sium bichromate by recrystallization from hot water. It must then be dried and cautiously heated to fusion to expel the last traces of moisture, but not sufficiently high to expel any oxygen. The pure salt thus prepared, may be weighed out directly, dissolved, and the solution diluted in a graduated flask to a definite volume. In this case no standardization is made, as the normal value can be calculated directly. It is, however, more generally customary to standardize a solution of the commercial salt by comparison with some substance of definite composition, as described below.
PROCEDURE.--Pulverize about 5 grams of pota.s.sium bichromate of good quality. Dissolve the bichromate in distilled water, transfer the solution to a liter bottle, and dilute to approximately 1000 cc. Shake thoroughly until the solution is uniform.
To prepare the solution of the reducing agent, pulverize about 28 grams of ferrous sulphate (FeSO_{4}.7H_{2}O) or about 40 grams of ferrous ammonium sulphate (FeSO_{4}.(NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4}.6H_{2}O) and dissolve in distilled water containing 5 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid. Transfer the solution to a liter bottle, add 5 cc. concentrated sulphuric acid, make up to about 1000 cc. and shake vigorously to insure uniformity.
INDICATOR SOLUTION
No indicator is known which, like methyl orange, can be used within the solution, to show when the oxidation process is complete. Instead, an outside indicator solution is employed to which drops of the t.i.trated solution are transferred for testing. The reagent used is pota.s.sium ferricyanide, which produces a blue precipitate (or color) with ferrous compounds as long as there are unoxidized ferrous ions in the t.i.trated solution. Drops of the indicator solution are placed upon a glazed porcelain tile, or upon white cardboard which has been coated with paraffin to render it waterproof, and drops of the t.i.trated solution are transferred to the indicator on the end of a stirring rod. When the oxidation is nearly completed only very small amounts of the ferrous compounds remain unoxidized and the reaction with the indicator is no longer instantaneous. It is necessary to allow a brief time to elapse before determining that no blue color is formed. Thirty seconds is a sufficient interval, and should be adopted throughout the a.n.a.lytical procedure. If left too long, the combined effect of light and dust from the air will cause a reduction of the ferric compounds already formed and a resultant blue will appear which misleads the observer with respect to the true end-point.
The indicator solution must be highly diluted, otherwise its own color interferes with accurate observation. Prepare a fresh solution, as needed each day, by dissolving a crystal of pota.s.sium ferricyanide about the size of a pin"s head in 25 cc. of distilled water. The salt should be carefully tested with ferric chloride for the presence of ferrocyanides, which give a blue color with ferric salts.
In case of need, the ferricyanide can be purified by adding to its solution a little bromine water and recrystallizing the compound.
COMPARISON OF OXIDIZING AND REDUCING SOLUTIONS
PROCEDURE.--Fill one burette with each of the solutions, observing the general procedure with respect to cleaning and rinsing already prescribed. The bichromate solution is preferably to be placed in a gla.s.s-stoppered burette.
Run out from a burette into a beaker of about 300 cc. capacity nearly 40 cc. of the ferrous solution, add 15 cc. of dilute hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.12) and 150 cc. of water and run in the bichromate solution from another burette. Since both solutions are approximately tenth-normal, 35 cc. of the bichromate solution may be added without testing. Test at that point by removing a very small drop of the iron solution on the end of a stirring rod, mixing it with a drop of indicator on the tile (Note 1). If a blue precipitate appears at once, 0.5 cc. of the bichromate solution may be added before testing again.
The stirring rod which has touched the indicator should be dipped in distilled water before returning it to the iron solution. As soon as the blue appears to be less intense, add the bichromate solution in small portions, finally a single drop at a time, until the point is reached at which no blue color appears after the lapse of thirty seconds from the time of mixing solution and indicator. At the close of the t.i.tration a large drop of the iron solution should be taken for the test. To determine the end-point beyond any question, as soon as the thirty seconds have elapsed remove another drop of the solution of the same size as that last taken and mix it with the indicator, placing it beside the last previous test. If this last previous test shows a blue tint in comparison with the fresh mixture, the end-point has not been reached; if no difference can be noted the reaction is complete. Should the end-point be overstepped, a little more of the ferrous solution may be added and the end-point definitely fixed.
From the volumes of the solutions used, after applying corrections for burette readings, and, if need be, for the temperature of solutions, calculate the value of the ferrous solution in terms of the oxidizing solution.
[Note 1: The accuracy of the work may be much impaired by the removal of unnecessarily large quant.i.ties of solution for the tests. At the beginning of the t.i.tration, while much ferrous iron is still present, the end of the stirring rod need only be moist with the solution; but at the close of the t.i.tration drops of considerable size may properly be taken for the final tests. The stirring rod should be washed to prevent transfer of indicator to the main solution. This cautious removal of solution does not seriously affect the accuracy of the determination, as it will be noted that the volume of the t.i.trated solution is about 200 cc. and the portions removed are very small. Moreover, if the procedure is followed as prescribed, the concentration of unoxidized iron decreases very rapidly as the t.i.tration is carried out so that when the final tests are made, though large drops may be taken, the amount of ferrous iron is not sufficient to produce any appreciable error in results.
If the end-point is determined as prescribed, it can be as accurately fixed as that of other methods; and if a ferrous solution is at hand, the t.i.tration need consume hardly more time than that of the permanganate process to be described later on.]
STANDARDIZATION OF POTa.s.sIUM BICHROMATE SOLUTIONS
!Selection of a Standard!
A substance which will serve satisfactorily as a standard for oxidizing solutions must possess certain specific properties: It must be of accurately known composition and definite in its behavior as a reducing agent, and it must be permanent against oxidation in the air, at least for considerable periods. Such standards may take the form of pure crystalline salts, such as ferrous ammonium sulphate, or may be in the form of iron wire or an iron ore of known iron content. It is not necessary that the standard should be of 100 per cent purity, provided the content of the active reducing agent is known and no interfering substances are present.
The two substances most commonly used as standards for a bichromate solution are ferrous ammonium sulphate and iron wire. A standard wire is to be purchased in the market which answers the purpose well, and its iron content may be determined for each lot purchased by a number of gravimetric determinations. It may best be preserved in jars containing calcium chloride, but this must not be allowed to come into contact with the wire. It should, however, even then be examined carefully for rust before use.
If pure ferrous ammonium sulphate is used as the standard, clear crystals only should be selected. It is perhaps even better to determine by gravimetric methods once for all the iron content of a large commercial sample which has been ground and well mixed. This salt is permanent over long periods if kept in stoppered containers.
STANDARDIZATION
PROCEDURE.--Weigh out two portions of iron wire of about 0.24-0.26 gram each, examining the wire carefully for rust. It should be handled and wiped with filter paper (not touched by the fingers), should be weighed on a watch-gla.s.s, and be bent in such a way as not to interfere with the movement of the balance.
Place 30 cc. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.12) in each of two 300 cc. Erlenmeyer flasks, cover them with watch-gla.s.ses, and bring the acid just to boiling. Remove them from the flame and drop in the portions of wire, taking great care to avoid loss of liquid during solution. Boil for two or three minutes, keeping the flasks covered (Note 1), then wash the sides of the flasks and the watch-gla.s.s with a little water and add stannous chloride solution to the hot liquid !from a dropper! until the solution is colorless, but avoid more than a drop or two in excess (Note 2). Dilute with 150 cc. of water and cool !completely!. When cold, add rapidly about 30 cc. of mercuric chloride solution. Allow the solutions to stand about three minutes and then t.i.trate without further delay (Note 3), add about 35 cc. of the standard solution at once and finish the t.i.tration as prescribed above, making use of the ferrous solution if the end-point should be pa.s.sed.
From the corrected volumes of the bichromate solution required to oxidize the iron actually know to be present in the wire, calculate the relation of the standard solution to the normal.