3. he flew deep into North Korea he flew deep into North Korea: Citation, First Lieutenant Kenneth S. Collins, SO. No. 221 Hq FEAP, APO925, 6 May 53, by Command of General Weyland.
4. fired at by MiG fighter jets fired at by MiG fighter jets: Ibid.
5. Distinguished Flying Cross Distinguished Flying Cross: Citation to Accompany the Award of the Distinguished Flying Cross (First Oak Leaf Cl.u.s.ter) to Kenneth S. Collins. AO 2222924, United States Air Force.
6. coveted Silver Star for valor coveted Silver Star for valor: Citation for Silver Star, First Lieutenant Kenneth S. Collins, by direction of the president.
7. a total of five Oxcarts being flight-tested at Area 51 a total of five Oxcarts being flight-tested at Area 51: Robarge, Archangel, Archangel, 17. 17.
8. Captain Donald Donohue would start out following Collins Captain Donald Donohue would start out following Collins: Interview with Don Donohue.
9. Later, Jack Weeks Later, Jack Weeks: Interview with Ken Collins.
10. "Suddenly, the altimeter was rapidly unwinding": Interview with Ken Collins.
11. Sam Pizzo had a monumental amount of work Sam Pizzo had a monumental amount of work: Interview with Sam Pizzo.
12. took to the desert terrain on horseback took to the desert terrain on horseback: Interview with Ken Collins.
13. filled by Air Force bra.s.s filled by Air Force bra.s.s: Interview with Colonel Slater.
14. Holbury had been given a commendation by General Patton Holbury had been given a commendation by General Patton: General Robert J. Holbury biography, Air Commander, Detachment 1 of the 1129th U.S. Air Force Special Activities Squadron at Groom Lake, Nevada; Roadrunners Internationale official Web site.
15. a pitot tube had in fact caused the crash a pitot tube had in fact caused the crash: Interview with Collins; Parangosky, The Oxcart Story, The Oxcart Story, 11. 11.
16. monitoring phone conversations monitoring phone conversations: Briefing Note for the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, 10 March 1964. Attachment 1 to BYE-2015-64, "Project Oxcart Awareness Outside Cleared Community." The Agency also had a system in place to monitor air traffic chatter during Oxcart test flights to see if any commercial or military pilots spotted the plane.
17. increasingly suspicious CIA increasingly suspicious CIA: Col. Redmond White, Diary Notes, September 27, 1963, Secret. White was the CIA"s deputy director/support and his notes include a second reference to the disclosure to Aviation Week Aviation Week as well as a notation that CIA director John McCone said, "OXCART is going to blow sooner or later." as well as a notation that CIA director John McCone said, "OXCART is going to blow sooner or later."
18. the Air Force ordered not one but three variants the Air Force ordered not one but three variants: Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 33. 33.
19. letters stood for "Reconnaissance/Strike" letters stood for "Reconnaissance/Strike": Memorandum, Secretary of the Air Force Eugene Zuckert to General Bernard Schriever, April 8, 1963, w/att: Procurement and Security Provisions for the R-12 Program, Top Secret.
20. eight hundred million dollars developing the B-70 bomber airplane eight hundred million dollars developing the B-70 bomber airplane: Marcelle Size Knaack, Encyclopedia of U.S. Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems, Post-World War II Bombers, Encyclopedia of U.S. Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems, Post-World War II Bombers, 559. The XB-70A had its genesis in Boeing Aircraft Corporation"s Project MX-2145. Also see Ball, 559. The XB-70A had its genesis in Boeing Aircraft Corporation"s Project MX-2145. Also see Ball, Politics and Force Levels, Politics and Force Levels, 21618. 21618.
21. the President was astonished the President was astonished: Rich, Skunk Works, Skunk Works, 228. 228.
22. "unnecessary and economically unjustifiable" "unnecessary and economically unjustifiable": President Kennedy, Special Message to the Congress of Urgent National Needs, delivered in person before a joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961.
23. Congress cut back its B-70 order even further Congress cut back its B-70 order even further: House Armed Services Committee, Authorizing Appropriations for Aircraft, Missiles and Naval Vessels for the Armed Forces (1961), 569, see FY 1962, 156465, 1577.
24. "Johnson, I want a promise out of you": Rich, Skunk Works, Skunk Works, 231. 231.
25. LeMay promised to send Lockheed LeMay promised to send Lockheed: Robarge, Archangel, Archangel, 52. The Air Force initially envisioned a fleet of as many as a hundred YF-12s, designed to intercept a Soviet supersonic bomber rumored to be in the works. 52. The Air Force initially envisioned a fleet of as many as a hundred YF-12s, designed to intercept a Soviet supersonic bomber rumored to be in the works.
26. At the Ranch, it was business as usual At the Ranch, it was business as usual: Interview with Colonel Slater.
27. finally delivered to the Ranch finally delivered to the Ranch: Robarge, Archangel, Archangel, 17. The J-57 engine could reach a maximum speed of Mach 1.6 and a maximum height of 40,000 feet; interview with John Evans of Pratt and Whitney. 17. The J-57 engine could reach a maximum speed of Mach 1.6 and a maximum height of 40,000 feet; interview with John Evans of Pratt and Whitney.
28. An X-ray showed the outline of a pen An X-ray showed the outline of a pen: Interview with Ed Lovick.
29. new set of challenges new set of challenges: Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 38. 38.
30. F-101 chase plane had run off the airstrip F-101 chase plane had run off the airstrip: Interview with Don Donohue.
31. Lyndon Johnson would be briefed Lyndon Johnson would be briefed: CIA Memo, Meeting with the President, Secretary Rusk, Secretary McNamara, Mr. Bundy and DCI. Re: Surfacing the OXCART, 29 November, 1963, 1.
Chapter Twelve: Covering Up the Cover-Up.
Interviews: Jim Freedman, Colonel Slater, T. D. Barnes, Stanton Friedman 1. "I heard it was in Area 22": Interview with Jim Freedman. In contemporary maps of the test site, Area 22 is located down by Camp Mercury. In the 1950s and 1960s, many of the quadrants were numbered differently.
2. 354,200 feet-almost 67 miles up 354,200 feet-almost 67 miles up: Jenkins, Hypersonics Before the Shuttle, Hypersonics Before the Shuttle, 119. The Karman line, commonly used to define the boundary between the Earth"s atmosphere and outer s.p.a.ce, is at an alt.i.tude of approximately 328,000, or 62 miles above sea level. The U-2 flew at 70,000 feet, or approximately 13 miles; the A-12 flew at 90,000 feet, or approximately 17.5 miles. 119. The Karman line, commonly used to define the boundary between the Earth"s atmosphere and outer s.p.a.ce, is at an alt.i.tude of approximately 328,000, or 62 miles above sea level. The U-2 flew at 70,000 feet, or approximately 13 miles; the A-12 flew at 90,000 feet, or approximately 17.5 miles.
3. "on 30 April, A-12 was in air": Priority Secret Cla.s.sified Message to Director from---2219Z Cla.s.sified Message Secret 15 May 62, ZE19C "Oxcart Secure Ops."
4. commercial pilots would report sightings commercial pilots would report sightings: Interview with Colonel Slater; Annie Jacobsen, "The Road to Area 51," Los Angeles Times Magazine, Los Angeles Times Magazine, April 5, 2009, 2628, 77. April 5, 2009, 2628, 77.
5. Walter Cronkite hosted a CBS news special report Walter Cronkite hosted a CBS news special report: The report can be viewed online, "From the Vault," CBS Reports. CBS Reports.
6. Dr. Robertson appeared on a Dr. Robertson appeared on a CBS Reports: CBS Reports: Haines, "CIA"s Role," 74. Haines, "CIA"s Role," 74.
7. House Armed Services Committee held hearings on UFOs House Armed Services Committee held hearings on UFOs: "Congress Rea.s.sured on s.p.a.ce Visits," New York Times, New York Times, April 6, 1966. April 6, 1966.
8. Air Force laying blame for the cover-up on the CIA Air Force laying blame for the cover-up on the CIA: Walter L. Mackey, executive officer, memorandum for DCI, "Air Force Request to Decla.s.sify CIA Material on Unidentified Flying Objects (UFO)," September 1, 1966.
9. According to CIA historian Gerald Haines According to CIA historian Gerald Haines: Haines, "CIA"s Role."
10. journalist named John Lear journalist named John Lear: Lear, "The Disputed CIA Doc.u.ment on UFO"s," Sat.u.r.day Review, Sat.u.r.day Review, September 3, 1966. September 3, 1966.
11. One of the more enigmatic figures One of the more enigmatic figures: Hillenkoetter took over amid negotiations on May 1, 1947, of what would be the National Security Act of 1947, so when the CIA came into being on September 18, 1947, he was already DCI, per the Central Intelligence Agency Library, Roscoe Henry Hillenkoetter, Rear Admiral, US Navy, CIA.gov.
12. served on the board of governors served on the board of governors: Haines, "CIA"s Role," 74.
13. Hillenkoetter testified to Congress Hillenkoetter testified to Congress: "Air Force Order on "Saucers" Cited; Pamphlet by the Inspector General Called Objects a "Serious Business,"" New York Times, New York Times, February 28, 1960. February 28, 1960.
14. he mysteriously resigned he mysteriously resigned: NICAP Web site, "The Who Was Series," Hillenkoetter, Vice-Admiral Roscoe, in my interview with Stan Friedman, Friedman said there was nothing mysterious about Hillenkoetter"s resigning, "he just resigned." Nor does Friedman believe that Hillenkoetter was planted at NICAP to gather information.
15. Bryan"s true role with the ufologists Bryan"s true role with the ufologists: Ibid. In the official NICAP bio for Hillenkoetter, it is written, "He resigned from NICAP in Feb 1962 and was replaced on the NICAP Board by a former covert CIA high official, Joseph Bryan III, the CIA"s first Chief of Political & Psychological Warfare (Bryan never disclosed his CIA background to NICAP or Keyhoe)."
16. the CIA had maintained three lines of thought on UFOs the CIA had maintained three lines of thought on UFOs: Memorandum for file OSI, Meeting of OSI Advisory Group on UFO, January 14 through 17, 1953, 3 pages; Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified Flying Objects, 1417 January 1953, Evidence Presented, 2 pages; CIA Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified Flying Objects, Comments and Suggestions of UFO Panel, 19 pages. The CIA party line on UFOs had been firmly established by General Bedell Smith during his tenure and was maintained until sometime around 1966, when this new thinking emerged.
17. This new postulation came from the Agency"s monitoring This new postulation came from the Agency"s monitoring: CIA Memo, Translation, Vitolniyek, R. (Director) Flying phenomena, Sovetsknya Latviya, Sovetsknya Latviya, no. 287, 10 Dec. 67; CIA Memo, 10 Aug. 67, "Report on Conversations with Soviet Scientists on Subject of Unidentified Flying Objects in the USSR"; CIA Memo, Translation of Memo from no. 287, 10 Dec. 67; CIA Memo, 10 Aug. 67, "Report on Conversations with Soviet Scientists on Subject of Unidentified Flying Objects in the USSR"; CIA Memo, Translation of Memo from Konsomol"skaya pravda, Konsomol"skaya pravda, no. 13, 20 January 68, author Zigel, 3. no. 13, 20 January 68, author Zigel, 3.
18. Villen Lyustiberg Villen Lyustiberg: CIA Memo, Translation, Lyustiberg V. (Science commentator for [illegible]), "Are Flying Saucers a Myth?" Pravda, Ukrainy, Pravda, Ukrainy, no. 40, 17 Feb. 68. no. 40, 17 Feb. 68.
19. "the U.S. publicizes them to divert people from its failures and aggressions" "the U.S. publicizes them to divert people from its failures and aggressions": CIA Memo, Translation, "Nothing But the Facts on UFOs or Which Novosti Writer Do You Read?" 9 April 1968, 12 pages.
20. Zigel, had come to believe Zigel, had come to believe: The CIA followed Zigel closely. In the Agency"s author biography on him, it states: "Zigel, F. Yu., Dr of Technical Science, writes under auspices of Moscow Aviation Inst.i.tute, a.s.sociate Professor there as of 1969." CIA a.n.a.lysts discovered that Zigel"s interest in UFOs began with his interest in astronomy and mathematics in 1936, after he partic.i.p.ated in an expedition to Kazakhstan to observe a solar eclipse. Zigel had also visited the Tunguska crater in Siberia, where a comet likely exploded, in 1908. The blast knocked over approximately 80 million trees and flattened 830 square miles of Siberian forest. In the early 1960s Zigel stunned his colleagues by suggesting that the Tunguska crater could have been created by an outer s.p.a.ce vehicle that crashed there.
21. "UFO Section of the All-Union Cosmonautics Committee" "UFO Section of the All-Union Cosmonautics Committee": t.i.tle: Unidentified flying objects, Source: Soviet Life, Soviet Life, no. 2 1968, 2729, 1. no. 2 1968, 2729, 1.
22. "The hypothesis that UFOs originate in other worlds": Ibid.
Chapter Thirteen: Dull, Dirty, and Dangerous Requires Drones Interviews: Ken Collins, Charlie Trapp, Colonel Slater, General Hsichun "Mike" Hua, Edward Lovick, Changti "Robin" Yeh (via written correspondence), Hervey Stockman 1. Collins knew the kind Collins knew the kind: Interview with Ken Collins.
2. simulated jungle survival simulated jungle survival: Interviews with Ken Collins, Charlie Trapp.
3. CIA pilot named Yeh Changti CIA pilot named Yeh Changti: Hua, Lost Black Cats, Lost Black Cats, ix. ix.
4. the Black Cats flew the Black Cats flew: Ibid., viiix.
5. "no information was released about Yeh Changti": Interview with General Hua.
6. "His code name was Terry Lee": Interview with Colonel Slater. Yeh Changti"s American name is Robin Yeh (the Chinese put family names first).
7. getting hard intelligence on China"s nuclear facilities getting hard intelligence on China"s nuclear facilities: National Photographic Interpretation Center, Mission [GRC-169], 23 August 1963, 30 pages. The designation for these missions was Operation Church Door. Images of targets photographed by the Black Cats include the Lop Nur nuclear facility, missile launch sites, airfields, ports, and industrial complexes.
8. Yeh Changti was tortured and held prisoner Yeh Changti was tortured and held prisoner: Interview with General Hua; in Lost Black Cats, Lost Black Cats, Hua, a former CIA Black Cat U-2 pilot, tells the tragic and amazing story of the nineteen years Changti and Chang spent as captives of Communist China, based on personal interviews. The sacrifices made by Changti and Chang have never been acknowledged by the CIA. On September 17, 1998, the CIA held a symposium called "U-2: A Revolution in Intelligence" to honor the decla.s.sification of many CIA-controlled U-2 operations and to celebrate its success. But the symposium omitted any mention of the Black Cat U-2 pilots according to my interview with General Hua. Hua, a former CIA Black Cat U-2 pilot, tells the tragic and amazing story of the nineteen years Changti and Chang spent as captives of Communist China, based on personal interviews. The sacrifices made by Changti and Chang have never been acknowledged by the CIA. On September 17, 1998, the CIA held a symposium called "U-2: A Revolution in Intelligence" to honor the decla.s.sification of many CIA-controlled U-2 operations and to celebrate its success. But the symposium omitted any mention of the Black Cat U-2 pilots according to my interview with General Hua.
9. second Black Cat pilot named Major Jack Chang second Black Cat pilot named Major Jack Chang: Ibid., ix. To clarify, General Hua also refers to Major Jack Chang as Chang Liyi-Jack being the pilot"s American nickname and Liyi being his "first name" in Chinese, which is his family name, the reverse of Western usage.
10. dull, dirty, and dangerous dull, dirty, and dangerous: Interview with T. D. Barnes.
11. "and then head back out to sea": Interview with Lovick. "A colleague named Mike Ash and I designed an electrical circuit into the drone"s pallet to select an antenna to be used to radiate the recovery beacon signal. If the sensor package was not recovered by an aircraft and it fell into the water, an antenna was deployed to allow radio signals to enable recovery." If the sensor package landed upside down, Lovick and Ash had created a system which allowed the seawater to act like a switch and activate a second antenna.
12. Yuletide Yuletide: Interviews with Colonel Slater, Frank Murray.
13. "with PJs nearly falling off cliffs": Interview with Charlie Trapp.
14. flight engineer, Ray Torick flight engineer, Ray Torick: There are many different ideas about why and how Torick died. I adhere to Colonel Slater"s view of the events. The drone"s first official test launch was on March 5, 1966, and during that flight, the drone launched successfully off the back of the mother ship while traveling at a speed of Mach 3.2. It then flew approximately 120 miles before it ran out of fuel and crashed into the sea, as was planned. A month later, a second launch sent a drone flying for 1,900 miles, at Mach 3.3, until it fell into the sea. It was on the third test launch that disaster struck and Torick died.
15. "He impulsively and emotionally decided": Rich, Skunk Works, Skunk Works, 267. 267.
16. "never again allow a Francis Gary Powers situation": Ibid.
17. "Ben, do you recognize this?" "Ben, do you recognize this?" Ibid., 270. Ibid., 270.
18. dubbed Operation Aphrodite dubbed Operation Aphrodite: Singer, Wired for War, Wired for War, 48. 48.
19. Tesla"s pilotless boat Tesla"s pilotless boat: Tesla, "Inside the Lab-Remote Control," PBS, Goliath carried 132 pounds of explosives Goliath carried 132 pounds of explosives: "Rise of the Machines," ArmyTechnology.com, May 21, 2008, mother ship called Marmalade mother ship called Marmalade: AFSC History Staff, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, 9. 9.
22. Fox, was blasted "sixty feet higher Fox, was blasted "sixty feet higher: Ibid., 11.
23. Operation Sandstone Operation Sandstone: For the Air Force, maintaining a drone wing was expensive. It was also a security risk. In early 1947, that more atomic tests were being planned was a closely guarded national secret because the public was being led to believe that the United States was genuinely considering outlawing the bomb-or at least putting the United Nations in control of atomic energy. In reality, it was during this period of alleged international debate that the drone unit was again called back into action for the next test series in the Pacific. Operation Crossroads was supposed to have been a singular event, and so talk surfaced among the drone pilots. Being reactivated could only mean one thing: more nuclear tests in the pipeline. This security leak made its way up the chain of command.
24. accidentally flew through the Zebra bomb"s mushroom cloud accidentally flew through the Zebra bomb"s mushroom cloud: AFSC History Staff, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, 21. 21.
25. "Now pilots, not drones, would be sent": Ibid., 2324.
26. fear that the entire world"s atmosphere could catch on fire fear that the entire world"s atmosphere could catch on fire: Interviews with Al O"Donnell and Jim Freedman.
27. what happened to Oppenheimer sent a strong message what happened to Oppenheimer sent a strong message: Interview with Al O"Donnell.
28. measurements inside the thermonuclear clouds measurements inside the thermonuclear clouds: Now called Task Group 3.4 and operating out of Eglin Air Force Base in Florida, these new drones were modified T-33 aircraft, as opposed to the old TF-80s used in earlier tests. The wing fell under the command of Colonel Thomas Gent, who was also in command of the 550th Guided Missile Wing of the Air Proving Ground.
29. crash-landed on a deserted island called Bogallua crash-landed on a deserted island called Bogallua: AFSC History Staff, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, 37. 37.
30. That group included Hervey Stockman That group included Hervey Stockman: Ibid., 82. Hervey"s name is misspelled as "Harvey."
31. Stockman, then flew sampling missions Stockman, then flew sampling missions: Ibid., 8085. Interview with Hervey Stockman.
32. "scientists put monkeys in the c.o.c.kpits": "Conversations with Colonel Hervey S. Stockman," edited by Ann Paden and Earl Haney (not published), from a section called "Nuclear testing program."
33. "not serving as guinea pigs": AFSC History Staff, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, 66. 66.
34. "In those days": "Conversations with Colonel Hervey S. Stockman," edited by Ann Paden and Earl Haney (not published), from a section called "Pacific testing ground."
35. Jimmy P. Robinson was one of the six pilots Jimmy P. Robinson was one of the six pilots: The details of Robinson"s story, including where I quote him, can be found in AFSC History Staff, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, 6975. Robinson"s name is redacted from the monograph, the words "privacy act material removed" stamped in their place. In 2009, Mark Wolverton wrote "Into the Mushroom Cloud" for 6975. Robinson"s name is redacted from the monograph, the words "privacy act material removed" stamped in their place. In 2009, Mark Wolverton wrote "Into the Mushroom Cloud" for Air and s.p.a.ce Air and s.p.a.ce magazine and revealed the pilot"s name publicly for the first time. Robinson was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross about a year after his death, but his family had no idea how he actually had died. Wolverton wrote that Robinson"s daughter Rebecca, "a baby when her father died, spent years pet.i.tioning the government for more information about his last mission, with only limited access." Rebecca Robinson says most of the information about her father"s death is "still cla.s.sified." magazine and revealed the pilot"s name publicly for the first time. Robinson was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross about a year after his death, but his family had no idea how he actually had died. Wolverton wrote that Robinson"s daughter Rebecca, "a baby when her father died, spent years pet.i.tioning the government for more information about his last mission, with only limited access." Rebecca Robinson says most of the information about her father"s death is "still cla.s.sified."
36. Atomic-sampling pilots wore lead-lined vests Atomic-sampling pilots wore lead-lined vests: AFSC History Staff, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling, 101. 101.
37. "It was one of the ones that was too big" "It was one of the ones that was too big": Interview with Al O"Donnell.
38. In contrast, the bomb dropped on Hiroshima In contrast, the bomb dropped on Hiroshima: Rhodes, Dark Sun, Dark Sun, photograph #76, "Mike over Manhattan." Here, the Ivy Mike fireball is shown in comparison with a Nagasaki-scale atomic bomb. Mike"s stem was 20 miles in diameter and its mushroom cap only began at 50,000 feet, approximately twice as high as commercial airplanes fly. The top of the mushroom cloud extended into the troposphere and was approximately 200 miles wide. photograph #76, "Mike over Manhattan." Here, the Ivy Mike fireball is shown in comparison with a Nagasaki-scale atomic bomb. Mike"s stem was 20 miles in diameter and its mushroom cap only began at 50,000 feet, approximately twice as high as commercial airplanes fly. The top of the mushroom cloud extended into the troposphere and was approximately 200 miles wide.
Chapter Fourteen: Drama in the Desert.
Interviews: Colonel Slater, Dr. Wheelon, Ken Collins, Kenneth Swanson, Frank Murray, Charlie Trapp, Frank Murray, Tony Bevacqua, Dr. Robert B. Abernethy 1. air-conditioned hunting blind air-conditioned hunting blind: Woods, LBJ, LBJ, 313. 313.
2. "I"ll be dammed": Brzezinski, Red Moon Rising, Red Moon Rising, 175. 175.