The essential task of higher education was enunciated by Premier Vulko Chervenkov in 1954: "Higher schools must train not only qualified specialists but also able, and conscious partic.i.p.ants in the political direction and building of socialism in our country." In 1949 correspondence courses were initiated for manual workers and civil servants. Courses generally ranged from five to six years. Certain workers were allowed to attend shorter courses given by the various inst.i.tutions while they continued to work. Although they were required to pa.s.s examinations, they did not have to attend cla.s.ses regularly.
Between 1948 and 1952 the curriculum became more and more patterned after the curriculum of the Soviet Union. In 1948 Marxist-Leninist studies were introduced; in 1949 political economy and the history of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union became obligatory for all university students. By 1950 the party newspaper, _Rabotnichesko Delo_, reported that 150 Soviet texts were being utilized in inst.i.tutions of higher education. By 1952 students were obliged to study both dialectical and historical materialism, the rudiments of Marxism-Leninism, and the history of the BKP. Study of these subjects was generally mandatory for three years.
In mid 1973 there were two major forms of higher educational inst.i.tutions: teacher training inst.i.tutions and university level inst.i.tutions. In the latter category are universities, technical inst.i.tutes, agricultural inst.i.tutes, medical schools, art academies, and higher schools of economics. In 1972 there were twenty-two university level inst.i.tutions, sixteen of which were in Sofia. The remainder were located in the provincial cities of Plovdiv, Varna, Svishtov, and Ruse.
The courses of study range from four to six years; five years is the average period. In 1970 in proportion to the total population of the country, Bulgaria was fourth in the world in terms of the number of students--which const.i.tuted about 1 percent of the total population--attending inst.i.tutions of higher education, following the United States, the Soviet Union, and j.a.pan.
Higher education in Bulgaria is conceived primarily in terms of the national economy. The entire educational process at the higher level is determined by the needs and prerequisites of the economy. The government has stated: "The main tasks of the inst.i.tutions of higher education are: to train qualified specialists, imbued with Communist ideals, for all fields of activity, who will be conversant with the latest developments in science and technology, to train teachers and research specialists for the inst.i.tutions of higher education and scientific organizations, to take systematic measures to improve the qualifications of specialists in various branches of the national economy; [and] to propagate scientific, technical and political knowledge among the workers."
Students at the undergraduate level--with the exception of students of worker and peasant origin--are expected to pa.s.s a written examination in order to gain admission. Fifty percent of the total number of admissions are reserved for people who have been employed for a two-year period.
Most graduates are obliged to work for three years after graduation in a position a.s.signed to them by the government. Unlike the prewar faculties, technical and scientific faculties have had the highest enrollments. Although education continues to draw large enrollments, in 1971 engineering had the largest number of students, followed by education, economics, agriculture, and medicine. Law and physical education had the lowest number of students at that time. As the State Committee for Science, Technical Progress, and Higher Education determines the specialization to be pursued, this list reflects more the preferences of the government than those of the students.
Because the government determines the fields of specialization to be pursued by students of higher education, over a ten-year period--from 1960 to 1970--the pendulum has swung away from the arts and toward the pure sciences. The fields most preferred by the students themselves, however, and those that earn the highest wages, are still medicine, architecture, journalism, and foreign languages.
The State Committee for Education and Technical Progress stipulates the number of admissions as well as the courses to be followed in graduate work. All applicants for graduate study must have a minimum of one year of working experience in their fields of specialization. In addition to completion of four or five years of higher education, the applicant must pa.s.s examinations in his field of specialization, in Russian, and in one Western European language. The curriculum is determined by the various research inst.i.tutes of the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Agricultural Sciences, or other inst.i.tutions of higher education. The term of graduate study is approximately four to 4- years.
Beyond the usual graduate study is the doctoral program. To obtain the doctor of science degree, the student must prepare a dissertation that according to governmental criteria, contains "a significant scientific contribution, new educational methods and proposals, theoretical conclusions and discoveries of great significance for the advancement of science, technology, and the national economy." A candidate for this degree must either hold a candidate degree, be thoroughly accredited in his profession, or have proof of significant contributions to the economy.
In terms of the exchange of foreign students, there are only a relatively small number of foreign students in Bulgaria, and only a tiny percentage of the Bulgarian student population studies abroad. Although theoretically opportunities exist for Bulgarian students to study in other countries, in fact, opportunities are very limited. There are strict regulations regarding foreign study. In 1971 the Ministry of National Education stated that only students of parents permanently employed abroad could study there; no students with independent sources of income were allowed to study in foreign universities. In 1971 between 1.5 and 1.8 percent of the Bulgarian student population were foreign students. In the academic year 1970/71 only 1,603 students studied abroad. Of these, 1047 studied in the Soviet Union; 226 studied in East Germany; 154 studied in Czechoslovakia; and twelve students pursued their studies in other countries.
At the same time foreign students are not numerous in Bulgaria, although they come from a variety of countries. As of 1972 only 1,240 foreign students had been graduated from Bulgarian universities. Among these graduates were 174 from Albania, 129 from Syria, 126 from East Germany, ninety-four from the Democratic People"s Republic of Korea (North Korea), fifty-seven from Kenya, and fifty from the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). In the academic year 1969/70 alone, 1,882 foreign students attended Bulgarian inst.i.tutions of higher education.
These students came from ninety-two countries; they include 430 students from North Vietnam, 393 from Syria, 106 from the Sudan, forty-five from Iraq, and twenty-two from Cuba. Although the focus in foreign student exchange is definitely on the developing countries--for both economic and political reasons--in 1971 foreign student exchanges with Western countries were being increased.
Although higher education is tuition free in Bulgaria, financial a.s.sistance is still required by a large number of students. The percentage of students on governmental scholarships varies from year to year, generally ranging between 30 to 40 percent. In 1965 over 39 percent of the student population received scholarships, whereas in 1970 only 30 percent received them. There are two basic conditions for scholarships as stipulated by the state: acceptable grade averages and a family income--per family member--that does not exceed 70 leva per month.
There are still severe difficulties in the field of higher education in Bulgaria. One problem is the acute shortage of professors in the areas of engineering and technology in inst.i.tutions of higher education. At some times the shortage is so extreme that advertis.e.m.e.nts are placed in the newspapers in order to recruit personnel.
Another difficulty in higher education is overcrowding in the schools and in the cities where the inst.i.tutions are located. This dilemma is particularly acute in Sofia, where most of the major universities and inst.i.tutes are located. In school year 1969/70 there were 82,573 students enrolled in higher educational inst.i.tutions; of this number, 59,130--roughly three-fourths--were in Sofia. As many of the students come to Sofia from other areas of the country, the influx of students has created a severe housing shortage. One solution, which has been explored to some extent in recent years, has been for students to enroll in inst.i.tutions in major cities to study in their regional areas during the year and come to Sofia only when examinations are given.
Approximately one-third of the total student population have studied on this basis.
A more serious problem is the issue of student preferences versus the demands of the economy. Since the government requires trained scientific and technological personnel, there are more admissions in these areas than in the arts. Students, however, have indicated a greater interest in the humanities, but admissions in these areas are few. In 1973 for every place available in the humanities, there were six applicants. For every place available in the sciences, there were only four applicants.
The inevitable result of such a policy is the creation of a group of young people who are engaged either in a study not of their choice or who have been dissuaded from the field of higher education altogether.
The most serious problem is the fact that only a small proportion of applicants are accepted in universities and inst.i.tutes because there are simply not enough facilities available to them. In an average year there are generally 70,000 applicants and only 15,000 acceptances. Thus, roughly 80 percent of all applicants are rejected by the inst.i.tutions of higher education in Bulgaria. Although students are allowed to reapply at a future date, because they are not generally permitted to study abroad, this overflow has resulted in the problem of the so-called idle youth. At the beginning of 1972 authorities estimated that there were approximately 50,000 of these people. Although the government has attempted to deal with this problem by forcing the idlers to either work or be trained for work--and they have been quite successful, as idlers were estimated to be down from approximately 51,000 to 9,000 in less than six months--they have failed to deal with the root cause of the problem, that is, insufficient places in higher education.
TEACHER TRAINING
Between 1921 and 1932 all primary and _progymnasium_ teachers had to complete the normal school section of the gymnasium. In 1932, however, all normal schools were abolished, and teachers were trained in two-year pedagogical inst.i.tutes that demanded completion of the gymnasium for admission. The pedagogical inst.i.tutes were subdivided into three sections: the humanities, the sciences, and arts and crafts. Gymnasium teachers, in turn, had to have a university degree. Vocational-school teachers generally were vocational-school graduates themselves.
In 1944 two new forms of teacher training, both based on the Soviet model, were established. Teachers in the kindergartens and the four-year elementary schools, who had already completed seven years of elementary school, attended five-year teacher training schools. Teachers of grades five through seven, who had completed their secondary education, trained at two-year inst.i.tutes. As before the communist takeover, teachers of secondary education and university professors had to complete their training at a university. Teachers of physical education, fine arts, and music were trained at the appropriate section of an inst.i.tution of higher education.
In 1953 the government established the Inst.i.tute for the Improvement of Teachers for the purpose of providing refresher courses for teachers.
This inst.i.tute also provided teachers with the proper ideological orientation. The government stated that the objectives of this inst.i.tute were to provide the "dogmatic ideological improvement of teachers ...
and ... the study and application of [the] Soviet teaching experience."
The inst.i.tute offered such courses as pedagogy, psychology, Bulgarian language and literature, Russian language and literature, Bulgarian history, the Bulgarian const.i.tution, mathematics and physics, natural science and chemistry, and geography.
In 1959, however, it was decided that all elementary-school teachers--those who taught grades one through four--would be trained at teacher training colleges, and all secondary-school teachers--who taught grades five through eleven--would attend higher educational inst.i.tutions.
In mid 1973 both kindergarten teachers and teachers of the first to fifth grades were trained at intermediate teacher training inst.i.tutes.
Teachers of grades five through eight also began their training at the same inst.i.tutes, where they trained for three years after the completion of their secondary education. When they had completed this level of their education, they continued at an inst.i.tute of higher education.
Teachers of the fifth through eleventh grades had to have a diploma from an inst.i.tution of higher education. Vocational-school teachers and art teachers were trained at appropriate faculties of higher educational inst.i.tutions.
Teachers are paid at various levels depending on their academic backgrounds and current circ.u.mstances. The three basic determinants of a teacher"s salary are his or her academic qualifications, the number of cla.s.ses covered per week, and the overall length of service. Every teacher is ent.i.tled to a 4-percent increase in salary after every five years of teaching. The total increase is limited to 16 percent. Teachers who work excessively long hours are granted overtime pay. In the case of teachers who are forced to teach in areas where living conditions are considered difficult, extra salaries are given. Teachers who are engaged in pilot programs receive a 5-percent supplement to their salaries in order to repay them for the necessary research and training. Teachers who teach in special schools, special kindergartens, and schools for maladjusted children also receive supplemental salaries. Teachers who--in addition to their regular duties--work in pupils" centers, boarding schools, and evening study periods receive an additional 20 percent of their original salary.
OTHER EDUCATION
Before World War II there were very few facilities for education that did not fall into the standard educational system. Schools for the handicapped, for example, were almost nonexistent. Just before the war there were only five schools of this kind and only 400 children were enrolled. There were three schools for the deaf, one for the blind, and one for the mentally r.e.t.a.r.ded.
By 1944 the number of schools for the handicapped had declined to four, and only 200 children were enrolled. One of the first pieces of educational legislation under the Communists provided specifically for this type of school. Although the development of these schools in the early years was quite slow, eventually, by the early 1960s, there were seventy special schools, caring for approximately 8,000 children. These special schools provided general schooling for the handicapped--although the curriculum was, of necessity, modified to suit the needs of the individual student. Emphasis was on vocational training.
The primary focus was on adult education. The major objective was to raise the level of literacy in the country. Between 1944 and 1950 there were special courses that were aimed at both total illiterates and semiliterates. When, by the early 1950s, this goal had been accomplished, these courses were reduced in number and replaced by other kinds of adult education. Part-time courses at the secondary level were made available for workers. Evening cla.s.ses--which taught new vocational skills and improved already existing skills--became common. Higher education through correspondence courses opened new avenues to people who had previously had only a vocational education.
In 1961 the first boarding schools were established. In 1971 new plans were formulated to increase the number of such schools. It was antic.i.p.ated that 30 percent of all first to eighth graders would attend such schools by 1975, that 50 to 60 percent would attend by 1980, and that a full 80 percent would live in boarding schools by 1990.
There is a wide diversity of schools that do not fall into the standard educational system. In terms of special education there are elementary schools for the blind, deaf, mentally r.e.t.a.r.ded, and children who are otherwise handicapped. All children in these categories begin their schooling at the age of seven with the exception of the r.e.t.a.r.ded, who begin at eight. These children attend school for eight years and may then continue in schools of general education, technic.u.ms, or other schools. r.e.t.a.r.ded children, after completion of the eight years, go on to special enterprises that are supervised by the Ministry of Public Health.
Children who are either recuperating from, or are p.r.o.ne to, illness attend primary and secondary schools located in areas where the climate is propitious for their recovery. Children in these schools are accepted at any point between the first and eleventh grades. Although the curriculum is somewhat modified, the basic content of the courses is essentially the same as in the regular primary and secondary schools.
Most pupils attend these schools only temporarily, generally from four or five months to a year.
When the Communists came to power they stipulated that private schools could continue only if they had express permission from the government and were operated under governmental authority. In the early years of communist rule, diplomatic missions continued to operate schools for the children of foreign emissaries. In 1973, however, the only private schools were the secondary school, known in Bulgaria as a seminary, and the Ecclesiastical Academy of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church.
In addition to these special schools, there are technical and vocational schools of various kinds that are not part of the regular school system.
Between secondary and higher technical schools fall the advanced technic.u.ms, which function on a postsecondary level. Courses generally run from two to three years, depending on the field of specialization.
There are advanced technic.u.ms for such specializations as mining, medicine, veterinary medicine, and industrial chemistry. All schools include courses in Marxism-Leninism, higher mathematics, and physical education in addition to the courses of specialization. Also on the technical-vocational level are six-month training courses that are organized by factories, cooperatives, and other enterprises. These courses are designed to improve the workers" skills or to retrain workers for other areas of specialization. These courses include both theoretical studies and practical work.
Evening courses, correspondence courses, refresher courses, and special research programs are also numerous in the country. Workers up to thirty years of age who have not completed their elementary education are urged to attend evening schools--known in Bulgaria as shift courses--or correspondence courses. In both types of school the average length of study is from one to three years, depending on the amount of elementary education completed. Once these courses are completed, the worker may continue in either a secondary polytechnic or a vocational school.
Eventually, he may go on to an inst.i.tution of higher education.
Refresher courses, on the other hand, are at the higher education level and are provided for industrial specialists in order to keep them abreast of the latest developments in science and technology. Teachers and researchers are encouraged to hold research fellowships that function under the various inst.i.tutions of higher education as well as the Academy of Sciences.
The final component of specialized education is conducted by the party.
Based on Marxism-Leninism, it is geared to indoctrinate party members but is provided for nonparty members as well. The objectives of this form of education were summed up by Georgi Dimitrov, premier of the country from 1946 until 1949, who stated that these schools are to prepare "individuals in the fundamental principles of Marxism-Leninism ... in order that they become independent practical organizers and leaders, capable of leading the ma.s.ses in the struggle against the cla.s.s enemy." The instructors of party education are trained at the Inst.i.tute for Political Instruction of the Central Committee of the BKP, which in turn supervises the work of the Central Leninist Party School. In addition to the general dissemination of party policy by these instructors, there are both formal study circles and political schools that present two-year courses in the history of both the Bulgarian and the Soviet communist parties.
CHAPTER 7
ARTISTIC AND INTELLECTUAL EXPRESSION
Bulgaria has a proud cultural heritage that dates to early medieval times. During the Golden Age (A.D. 893-927) of the first and second Bulgarian kingdom, Bulgarian arts and letters dominated the Slavic world. Exposed to the flourishing culture of neighboring Byzantium, Bulgarians absorbed its influence, adapted it to their own Slavic culture and language, and then spread it among the less advanced Slavic peoples in the Balkans and to the north.
After the Turkish conquest in 1396, cultural development was r.e.t.a.r.ded for several centuries until the drive for liberation in the nineteenth century rekindled its creative spark. In contrast to the Golden Age, however, when Bulgarian culture was widespread, modern artistic and intellectual expression tended to be provincial in both its audience and its content. After independence, although interest in cultural and intellectual matters was high, support for it was restricted to a minority in Sofia and in a few of the largest towns. The government made some contribution to the country"s artistic development through small subsidies to inst.i.tutions and government jobs for artists and intellectuals, but the subsidies were not always on the basis of merit.
Before World War II few people could made an adequate living through creative work alone, with the possible exception of members of the National Theater and Opera. The prestige of university professors, members of the Academy of Sciences, and the leading singers, artists, actors, and writers was high, but the financial rewards were hardly commensurate with their standing. Despite their prestige, Bulgarian writers and intellectuals have not enjoyed the same position of leadership and influence that has been traditional in other countries of Eastern Europe.
The communist government had promoted pride in the cultural heritage by restoring and preserving the country"s medieval treasures and national revival masterpieces and by promoting traditional folk arts both in their own right and as inspiration to other forms of artistic expression. Considerable funds and efforts have been devoted to the promotion of new artistic and intellectual expression, which is seen as an important medium for the political and social education of the people. For this reason the leadership has tried to keep artistic and intellectual expression under control and to use it for its own purposes.