Woodcarving, silversmithing, goldsmithing, and other crafts also reached a high level of artistry in medieval Bulgaria. Human and animal figures were common motifs in carved wooden doors and other architectural features.
Medieval creativity came to an abrupt halt with the Turkish invasion, which not only prevented new artistic expression but also destroyed and damaged much of the existing art. Not until the National Revival of the nineteenth century did Bulgarian artists again begin to express their creativity in painting and sculpture.
Modern Bulgarian art had its beginning in the national awakening and the struggle for independence of the late eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries. As in literature, National Revival art found its themes in the beauty of the countryside, the charm of old customs, traditional folktales, and the heroic deeds of brave men. Stylistic inspiration came from peasant art and ancient Bulgarian religious art. Most significant among revival artists were Nikola Pavlovich and Vladislav Dospevaki, the former for his introduction of Western-style realism and the latter for his modernization of church art. As a whole, however, National Revival art is more significant for its historic role than for its artistic merit.
In the early years of independence, the simplicity of National Revival art gave way to an academic style and to impressionism. Best known in that period was Ivan Murkvichka, a Bohemian by birth, whose most appreciated paintings dealt with peasant life. He founded the Academy of Fine Arts in Sofia and organized the first Bulgarian art exhibit.
After World War I Vladimir Dimitrov, known as The Master, sought to free Bulgarian painting from the influence of ethnography and literature, although he too drew upon village motifs. Mainly a painter of people--in individual portraits or in group compositions--he concentrated on themes of family life and peasant work. Since World War II Dimitrov has been hailed as a great revolutionary humanist whose stylized epic and lyrical works depict the greatness of the people and of their suffering.
In addition to Dimitrov, the interwar period saw the formation of a group of young painters, led by Ivan Milev, who broke away from routine academic composition and advocated the combination of national with modernistic elements. At this time also, Alexander Bozhinov developed cartoon caricature as an art form to be used as a political weapon.
Contemporary art has been guided by the strictures of Socialist Realism as interpreted at different times. Because national or peasant art is always acceptable under these restrictions, artists have used it as an avenue for greater freedom of expression. The influence of peasant icons, for instance, can be seen in the work of many contemporary artists. Peasant motifs, such as the fruits of the earth, are also evident in much of the work. The art most acceptable to the leadership, however, has been the kind of realism that Westerners a.s.sociate with communist art. Typical of this style is Ilia Petrov"s _Partisan Song_, a monumental canvas depicting a group of partisans triumphantly singing after a victory over fascists. Petrov has consistently received official praise for his work, which is seen as "national in form and socialist in content."
Under the influence of Zhivkov"s more liberal cultural policy in the 1960s, artists began to show greater variation and creativity in style while retaining the acceptable subject matter for their work. Many experimented with abstracts and other avant-garde forms, but these works were never selected for public showing or purchase by the museums and other state agencies, which are the only significant patrons. The artist, therefore, is usually forced to divide his efforts between those works that will earn a living and those that will give vent to his creative urge.
Although nonrepresentational art is not publicly exhibited, a considerable degree of abstraction became acceptable in the late 1960s.
According to observers who have had contact with Bulgarian artists, the public had grown bored with the prescribed style and content of artistic production, and the government could no longer effectively enforce the restrictions. Added to the difficulties of enforcement was the increasing exposure of Bulgarians through tourism to the great variety of contemporary art produced in Western Europe and in some of the other communist countries. The most abstract and avant-garde painter in Bulgaria is Genko Genkov, some of whose paintings hang in the National Gallery in Sofia.
Graphic artists have been allowed the greatest freedom for abstraction.
By its very nature, graphic art tends to be abstract and stylized.
Graphic artists such as Maria Nedkova have succeeded in producing works that are highly regarded both by the government and by the avant-garde intelligentsia. Many graphic artists go back to Bulgarian medieval art for inspiration in theme and style. Pencho Koulekov, for instance, who is highly regarded in Bulgaria, uses the primitive two-dimensional perspective, the simplification of forms, the highlighting of the essential, and the omission of all detail that was characteristic of early miniaturists and icon painters.
Until the time of independence, sculpture was represented almost exclusively by decorative wood carvings. With the introduction of Western influences, several artists turned to the use of stone. Few Bulgarian sculptors achieved international fame, however, although the work of some professors of fine arts in Sofia were becoming known outside the country. Among them was the noted woodcut artist, Vasil Zakhariev, and a former director of the Academy of Fine Arts, Ivan Lasarov.
The three-dimensional nature of sculpture and the cla.s.sic Greek tradition of literal representation have made it difficult for contemporary sculptors to break away from the realistic representational requirements of the regime. Only sculptures designed for children"s playgrounds and parks are allowed a degree of abstraction characteristic of art created by children themselves. Observers have commented that works considered highly modern in Bulgaria are completely traditional and representational to the Western eye.
ARCHITECTURE
The architectural tradition of Bulgaria is formed on ancient Thracian, Greek, and Roman architecture of which examples survive in several parts of the country. Three periods stand out in the development of distinct architectural styles over the ages. The first period was the Middle Ages, when Bulgarian and other architects constructed some of the great examples of early Byzantine architecture in territories that const.i.tuted the First Bulgarian Kingdom (see ch. 2). Many of these monuments are no longer within the boundaries of Bulgaria--notably the churches and monastery in the Lake Ohrid region of Yugoslavia--and others were destroyed during the centuries of Turkish rule. Among those that have survived within the confines of the country are some of the best examples of artistic expression and technology of the Byzantine period. These are a source of great pride for Bulgarians, who consider them part of their contribution to world culture.
The next period of outstanding architectural development was the National Revival period of the late eighteenth century and the nineteenth century. Flourishing commerce gave new life to such towns as Plovdiv and Turnovo and created new urban centers in which affluent merchants and artisans built homes and public buildings in a richly ornamented style that came to be known as the National Revival style.
These two-story structures made extensive use of stone and wood, the latter usually elaborately carved. The interiors were light and s.p.a.cious. In addition to carved doors, ceilings, and built-in sideboards, the interiors were often decorated with wall paintings.
Typical of National Revival architecture is the Rila Monastery; its interior walls are covered with frescoes, and its interior and exterior abound in carved wooden structural members and decorative details. The monastery, like other National Revival structures, reflects the Byzantine influence in the many large arched windows, arched ceilings, and arcades.
The third period of distinguished architectural development is the contemporary one. Industrial growth since World War II and a rapidly growing tourist industry since the mid-1950s have called for large-scale construction of needed facilities. New resort towns arose on the Black Sea; industrial new towns grew in other locations; and hotels, apartment complexes, and public buildings were needed throughout the country.
Although much of the architecture imitates the colossal style of Stalinist work, some of it is of high artistic quality and imagination.
The Balkantourist Hotel in Turnovo and several hotels in Black Sea resorts are often singled out as outstanding examples of modern architecture; they combine traditional features with modern materials and techniques and blend them into a design that fits into the natural surroundings.
Several young architects have achieved international reputations by winning major design compet.i.tions in different parts of the world.
Winning designs have included plans for the development of the city center of Closure, in the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), and the city center of Tunis, and the redesigning of the Civic Center Plaza in San Francisco. Since the 1960s the most talented young architects have been spending some time in Western Europe to expand their knowledge and experience.
SCHOLARSHIP AND SCIENCE
Isolated for five centuries from the main currents of intellectual and scientific developments abroad and denied the education required to undertake any scholarly or scientific activity of their own, the Bulgarian people do not have a long tradition of scholarship and science. Some intellectual activity did take place in the isolated mountain monasteries, and it eventually inspired the National Revival.
Because of this isolation, however, the focus of the intellectual activity was parochial.
The Academy of Sciences was founded in 1869 as part of the National Revival movement and has served, together with the University of Sofia, as the rallying point of intellectuals and scholars. After World War II the Academy of Sciences was expanded by the incorporation of several independent research inst.i.tutions. Its membership was also vastly increased with the admission of individuals whose loyalty to the new government would a.s.sure the proper slant to their scholarly work. The Academy of Agricultural Sciences was founded in 1961 to provide the scientific know-how that would expand the output of collectivized agriculture. The two academies coordinate and supervise all research and scholarly activity undertaken in the country.
Emphasis in all scholarly and scientific activity has been on matters directly applicable to industrial and agricultural development. Work in the social sciences has been directed at the government"s efforts to transform Bulgaria into a socialist state. The work of scientists and scholars must conform to the various theories and formulas developed by Soviet scholars and must not dispute or contradict the basic precepts of Marxism-Leninism as interpreted by the Bulgarian leadership. In the early 1970s scholarly activity in Bulgaria had not yet attained the freedom of thought and expression that has been evident in Poland and Hungary.
SECTION II. POLITICAL
CHAPTER 8
GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM
The People"s Republic of Bulgaria is a socialist state with a form of government not too different from the Soviet model on which it was patterned. Following the cla.s.sical Marxist-Leninist ideology, it subscribes to rule by the working cla.s.s--that is, dictatorship of the proletariat--a doctrine a.s.serting that all power emanates from the people and is exercised by them through the electoral process. Corollary to this right of the people to elect national representatives is the power to recall them through the same instrument of the ballot. In practice, however, the dictatorship of the proletariat has been a dictatorship of the communist party.
The government has its theoretical base in the const.i.tution adopted in 1971, which superseded the earlier version of 1947. The 1971 Const.i.tution provides for a representative unicameral legislature known as the National a.s.sembly, an executive committee within the legislature called the State Council, and a cabinet of advisers known as the Council of Ministers. For regional and local government the const.i.tution establishes a hierarchical structure of people"s councils. Parallel to the entire governmental structure there exist corresponding levels of the Bulgarian Communist Party (Bulgarska Komunisticheska Partiya--BKP, see Glossary) and, in practice, the party leadership at each level exercises executive and legislative control.
The 1971 Const.i.tution, unlike the 1947 doc.u.ment, explicitly sanctions the leadership of the BKP. Its preamble unequivocally proclaims the leading role of the BKP in the government machinery as the directing force in promoting socialist goals and in actively partic.i.p.ating in the fraternity of friendly socialist countries. Particularly noteworthy is the statement of recognition of Bulgaria"s alignment with the Soviet Union.
The 1971 Const.i.tution also recognizes the representation of multi-interest groups within the united Fatherland Front (Otechestven Front), a coalition of left-of-center political groups, which had its origins during World War II. The front has become a large umbrella for ma.s.s organizations and is headed by the National Council of the Fatherland Front, which functions under party auspices. As const.i.tuted in 1973, the front remained a control mechanism or, more appropriately, a transmission belt for the BKP.
The drafters of the 1971 Const.i.tution of Bulgaria subscribed to Lenin"s principle of unity of power, which advocated combined legislative-executive authority in one state organ of power. In the 1970s the State Council had a.s.sumed legislative initiative as well as executive responsibility, whereas the National a.s.sembly, which was const.i.tutionally endowed with the legislative authority, followed the lead of the State Council.
Government is structured on two levels: national and local. The highest legislative body, according to the const.i.tution, is the National a.s.sembly, which meets only three times a year in very short sessions.
Executive direction at the national level comes from the State Council, which theoretically is elected by and responsible to the National a.s.sembly. In effect, however, the council has become a superior body.
Because the National a.s.sembly meets infrequently, the State Council a.s.sumes legislative initiative in addition to its executive responsibility. The third major organ at the national level, referred to in the const.i.tution as the government, is the Council of Ministers, which is theoretically appointed by and responsible to the National a.s.sembly but is actually responsible to the State Council. National policy decisions reach the gra.s.s roots level through the pyramidal system of people"s councils.
The judiciary, although independent in theory, is an integral part of the government structure that operates as an adjunct of the executive-legislative organs. By design the judicial system legitimizes communist control and gives legal expression to party policy. The system is structured so that the courts of law and the prosecution agency function together, and the latter enjoys police power.
CONSt.i.tUTIONAL EVOLUTION
The beginnings of const.i.tutional government in Bulgaria date back to 1879 after Russia had liberated the country from 485 years of Turkish rule. From 1879 to 1947 the country was governed by a const.i.tutional monarchy based on the Turnovo Const.i.tution, which established a parliamentary system of government having a king at its head. Among comparable const.i.tutions in Europe at the time, the Turnovo doc.u.ment was considered liberal and democratic in form, organization, and operation.
It was considered to be one of the most liberal in the world at that time. Whereas most European countries limited suffrage in various ways, all Bulgarian citizens over the age of twenty-one enjoyed the franchise.
Through a sixty-five-year span, however, the Turnovo Const.i.tution was revised twice, suspended twice, and violated many times. Basic to these conflicts was the limit on the power of the king and the extent of popular partic.i.p.ation in government. The absence of consultative bodies in a unicameral legislature served to widen the rift between the executive and legislative branches.
Even after the communist takeover in 1944, the Turnovo Const.i.tution continued to be the charter of government until a new const.i.tution was adopted in December 1947. In party historiography the 1947 Const.i.tution is described as the work of Georgi Dimitrov, hence it became known as the Dimitrov Const.i.tution and remained in force until 1971.
The Const.i.tution of 1947
In the mid-1940s, with the ascendancy of the BKP in the Fatherland Front coalition government, there arose a need to draw up a new charter. The changes in government structure and operation had rendered the Turnovo Const.i.tution obsolete, and the BKP was anxious to discard those elements that party ideologists considered bourgeois.
Structurally the Const.i.tution of 1947 consisted of eleven chapters and 101 articles without a preamble. It proclaimed Bulgaria a people"s republic with a representative form of government to be implemented by universal suffrage of citizens eighteen years of age and over.
The const.i.tution established the National a.s.sembly as the supreme organ of the state power and the Council of Ministers as the supreme executive and administrative organ. During the twenty-four-year span of the 1947 Const.i.tution, the Presidium of the National a.s.sembly actually wielded more power than its parent organization or the Council of Ministers, even though such power was not ascribed to it in the Const.i.tution. The power of the presidium derived from the BKP positions concurrently held by its members.
Legislative power was vested in a unicameral legislature, the National a.s.sembly, which was elected for a term of four years. a.s.sembly representatives were elected by the people on the basis of one representative for every 30,000 people; amended in 1961 to 25,000.