Without the a.s.sistance of winged figures, the illusion of ascension can only be given when the figure is shown directed upwards at an angle of at least fifteen or twenty degrees from the vertical. As a rule the larger the angle, the more easy is the production of an illusion. With a fairly large angle, and an appropriate arrangement of limbs and drapery, heavy figures can be made to appear naturally ascending, as in Rubens"s Boreas and Orithyia, both voluptuous forms.[b]
[a] As in Murillo"s Ascension of Christ, Madrid Academy.
[b] Venice Academy.
Only a very few of the first artists have been able to give an illusion of movement in the air by use of drapery alone, the device adopted by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel frescoes being perhaps the most effective. He throws behind the moving figure of the Deity a large fold of drapery, which a.s.sumes an oval or nearly round shape, the whole acting as a concave framework for the Deity and attending Angels.[a] The success of the plan arises of course from the apparent resistance to the air offered by a large and compact surface. This form with more or less marked modifications in the concavity was probably used by the ancient Greeks in their paintings, as a nearly similar arrangement is found in a sculptured figure which has come down to us, though in this case a running movement is indicated.[b] It is also seen in some Pompeian frescoes, where it is applied to figures moving through the air and on the ground.[c] Raphael adopted the device occasionally,[d] but generally varied it with excellent effect by flowing out from the waist a large scarf-like fold to take a circular form above the head and shoulders of the figure,[e] or by causing heavy drapery to flow out from the lower part of the body.[f] No doubt in the case of Raphael, the extraordinary grace of figure, and the perfect pose of the limbs, a.s.sist the illusion.
Tintoretto and other artists of the Renaissance used an oval drapery in a similar way; while sometimes the figure is half hidden within it,[g]
and Le Sueur wrapped part of the figure in folds before forming the oval.[h] There seems to be a simple virtue in any oval form connected with figures presumed to be suspended in the air. It was quite common in the early days of the Renaissance for the Deity or Virgin and Child to be placed in a regular oval framework, sometimes supported by Angels or cherubs, and the illusion was usually successful.[i] Rubens by way of experiment went a little further in one picture, for he placed the Virgin and Child in an oval picture frame supported by cherubs.[j] This however does not seem so novel as some of Perugino"s ovals which are bordered with the heads of cherubs.[k]
[a] See Plate 24.
[b] The Son of Niobe, Uffizi Gallery, Florence.[72]
[c] Herculanum et Pompei, vol. iv., by Roux Aine.
[d] Ceiling of the Hall of Heliodorus, Vatican.
[e] Vatican frescoes G.o.d Separating Water and Earth, and G.o.d Appearing to Isaac.
[f] The Creation of the Sun and Moon.
[g] Poussin"s St. Francis Zavier, Louvre.
[h] The Virgin appearing to St. Martin.
[i] See the a.s.sumption of Orcagna, and of Luca di Tome; Giunto Pisano"s Christ and the Virgin; and Mainardi"s Madonna giving her Girdle to St. Thomas.
[j] Virgin and Child, Chiesa Nuovo, Rome.
[k] Ascension of Christ, Perugia; a.s.sumption, Florence Academy, and others.
Wings are seldom sufficient to suggest lightness in the air, because they can scarcely be designed of the size and strength which we judge to be proportionate to the presumed weight of the body, without making the form appear abnormal, though there are instances in which partial success has been achieved by using comparatively small figures and giving them unusually large wings.[a] The use of more than a single pair of wings is hardly permissible because of the apparent anomaly. Actually one pair is not less incomprehensible from an anatomical point of view than several pairs, but custom has driven from our minds any suggestion of incongruity in respect of the representation of the common type of Angel. Naturally when skilfully arranged, the more wings, the stronger the illusion of flight, and if a habit of giving four wings to an Angel were engendered, we should perhaps see nothing strange in them. Even six wings have been given to Angels without making them appear ungraceful.[b]
[a] J. H. Witt"s Bless the Lord.
[b] Picart"s The Burning Coal.
When there is no a.s.sistance, as clouds or flowing drapery, lent to Angels to promote the illusion of suspension, it is necessary to give them an att.i.tude which is nearly horizontal. Properly managed, a pair of comparatively small wings may in this way appear to support a heavy form.[a] Luini actually adds the weight of the body of St. Catherine to three Angels, flying horizontally, who carry her to the tomb[b]; an invention, strangely enough, followed by Kulmbach in Germany at about the same time.[c] In both cases the illusion is excellent. Some of the early Flemish and German masters, including Van Eyck[d] and Holbein,[e]
employed Angels in scenes with the Virgin to hold suspended behind her seat, large falls of brocaded material, and it is curious to note that the Angels themselves seem to be supported by the drapery. In order to a.s.sist the suggestion of lightness, Perugino sometimes arched the lower limbs of the Angels, adding a narrow tape scroll[f]; an addition improved upon by Raphael who subst.i.tuted for the scroll a loosened girdle flying out from the waist.[g]
[a] Rembrandt"s The Angel quitting Tobias, Louvre.
[b] The Brera, Milan.
[c] St. Mary"s, Krakan.
[d] Virgin and Child at the Fountain, Antwerp.
[e] Virgin and Child, Augsburg.
[f] The Ascension, Borgo San Sepolcro, Perugia.
[g] Creation of Woman, Castello Gallery; Prophets and Sybils, Perugia, and others.
The most frequently used form of support for figures in suspension are irregular ma.s.ses of clouds, upon which the figures sit or stand, and occasionally are partly enfolded therein. Sometimes the cloud bank is more or less shaped for the purpose of relief, or for variety in design.
Thus, Raphael makes part of the cloud a perfect footrest for the Virgin,[a] and Palma Giovane does a similar thing for a figure of Christ,[b] but in this case the illusion is hazarded as the seat is not directly indicated. Ingres produces an excellent illusion by making the footrest a small separate cloud,[c] which is a variation from the practice of many painters of the Renaissance, who used a separate cloud for each personage in the composition, or even with each foot as with Carlo Crivelli.[d] In a fresco of the Evangelists at Florence, each of them sits with his insignia on a foliated bank of clouds.[e] Perugino in using a similar plan sometimes places the clouds at the bottom of the picture, no part of the earth being seen, so that the illusion is considerably enhanced.[f] At other times he shows Angels apparently running through the air, with each front foot resting on a tiny cloud, giving the impression that it is fastened there.[g] Durer extended this plan by directly attaching a small cloud to each foot, the effect being somewhat whimsical.[h] t.i.tian was unsuccessful in the use of an isolated cloud.[i] In a Resurrection scene Christ stands on a small thin cloud, and holds a flag-pole, the lower end of which rests upon the cloud.
Obviously with such a design no suggestion of ascent can enter the mind.
[a] Foligna Madonna, Vatican.
[b] Christ in Judgment, Venice.
[c] The Oath of Louis XIII.
[d] Coronation of the Virgin, Milan.
[e] Santa Maria. By an unknown artist of the Ghirlandaio school.
[f] Christ"s Rule.
[g] Madonna and Child with Penitents, and others.
[h] The Virgin with a Canary, Berlin.
[i] Urbino Gallery.
[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE 23 (See page 247) Patricia, by Lydia Emmet (_Private owner, N. Y._)]
Some artists, as Luca Signorelli,[a] hide the lower part of the figure behind clouds, but this method, while indicating suspension, cannot provide an illusion of movement without an a.s.sisting device. Thus Schonherr shows an Angel so concealed in a nearly horizontal position with wings fully expanded, the effect being good.[b] When a figure is suspended on clouds, very rarely indeed is repose emphasized by placing it in a horizontal position, but Poussin once adopts the plan,[c] and Guercino goes so far as to represent a reclining Angel resting her head on her hand as if suffering from fatigue.[d] Perfect repose of the Deity in an upright position on clouds is produced by Gustave Dore, who reduces the size of the earth, above which He stands, to an insignificant proportion, so that the imagination sends it moving round below Him.[e]
[a] Madonna and Child in Glory, Arezzo.
[b] The Agony in the Garden.
[c] Adam and Eve.
[d] Martyrdom of St. Peter, Modena.
[e] Creation of the Earth.
Quite a number of artists represent the suspended figures standing on the backs of cherubs or cupids, which in their turn are supported by clouds, as for instance, R. Ghirlandaio,[a] Liberale di Verona,[b] and Francesco da Cotignola.[c] Fra Bartolommeo places a single foot of the Deity on a cherub who holds a banderole, the illusion being excellent.[d] Domenichino adopts a most ingenious device in St. Paul"s Vision. He shows the Apostle being carried to Heaven by winged cherubs, who appear to find the weight considerable, and to struggle under it.
There is little else to induce the illusion, which is complete.[e] A similar scheme is successfully managed in Prud"hon"s Abduction of Psyche. Ta.s.saert uses a like device, but in addition has a cherub supporting each arm of the Virgin. Palma Vecchio makes the Virgin stand on the outstretched wings of a cherub, but her robe blows upwards, giving her the appearance of descending instead of ascending.[f] Rubens has three alternatives in the use of cherubs. The figure sits on clouds with feet resting on small globes sustained by cherubs[g]; or the cherubs hold the dress and mantle of the Virgin; or they help to control the clouds upon which she sits.[h] In some of his pictures of the Immaculate Conception, Murillo also uses globes, but places the cherubs on them instead of under. Francia has a picture in which cherubs hold up clouds bearing the Virgin,[i] a device once used by Rembrandt.[j] Genga shows the Deity kneeling upon the heads of cherubs, a scheme not satisfactory.[k] Cherubs were used by t.i.tian to hold up the Virgin and clouds,[l] while Velasquez rested the robes on clouds, but used cherubs to sustain the Holy Mother.[m]
[a] The Madonna giving her Girdle to St. Thomas, Prato.
[b] The Magdalene and Saints.
[c] Adoration of the Shepherds, Ravenna Academy.