E) Radial Velocity Km. per sec.
F) Spectral Type G) Luminosity (Sun=1) H) Star Stream
==================================================================== Star"s Name | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H ---------------+-----+------+------+-----+-----+------+-------+----- Groombridge 34 | 8.2 | 0.28 | 2.85 | 48 | .. | Ma | 0.010 | I Eta Ca.s.siop | 3.6 | 0.20 | 1.25 | 30 | +10 | F8 | 1.4 | I Tau Ceti | 3.6 | 0.33 | 1.93 | 28 | -16 | K | 0.50 | II Epsilon Erid | 3.3 | 0.31 | 1.00 | 15 | +16 | K | 0.79 | II CZ 5h 243 | 8.3 | 0.32 | 8.70 | 129 |+242 | G-K | 0.007 | II Sirius |-1.6 | 0.38 | 1.32 | 16 | -7 | A |48.0 | II Procyon | 0.5 | 0.32 | 1.25 | 19 | -3 | F5 | 9.7 | I ?
Lal. 21185 | 7.6 | 0.40 | 4.77 | 57 | .. | Ma | 0.009 | II Lal. 21258 | 8.9 | 0.20 | 4.46 | 106 | .. | Ma | 0.011 | I OA (N) 11677 | 9.2 | 0.20 | 3.03 | 72 | .. | .. | 0.008 | I Alpha Centauri | 0.3 | 0.76 | 3.66 | 23 | -22 | G,K5 |{2.0 | I | | | | | | |{0.6 | OA (N) 17415 | 9.3 | 0.27 | 1.31 | 23 | .. | F | 0.004 | II Pos. Med. 2164 | 8.8 | 0.29 | 2.28 | 37 | .. | K | 0.006 | I Sigma Draco | 4.8 | 0.20 | 1.84 | 43 | +25 | K | 0.5 | II Alpha Aquilae | 0.9 | 0.24 | 0.65 | 13 | -33 | A5 |12.3 | I 61 Cygni | 5.6 | 0.31 | 5.25 | 80 | -39 | K5 | 0.10 | I Epsilon Indi | 4.7 | 0.28 | 4.67 | 79 | -62 | K5 | 0.25 | I Kruger 60 | 9.2 | 0.26 | 0.92 | 17 | .. | .. | 0.005 | II Lacaille 9352 | 7.4 | 0.29 | 7.02 | 115 | +12 | Ma | 0.019 | I --------------------------------------------------------------------
These stars are distant less than five pa.r.s.ecs (about 16 light-years) from the sun, so they make up the closest fringe of the stellar universe immediately surrounding our system. The large number of binary systems is quite remarkable. Why some stars are single and others double is not yet known. By the spectroscopic method the proportion is not so large; Campbell finding that about one quarter of 1,600 stars examined are spectroscopic binaries, and Frost two-fifths to a half. The exceptional number of large velocities is very remarkable; the average transverse motion of the nineteen stars is fifty kilometers per second, whereas thirty is about what would have been expected.
As to star streams to which these nearest stars belong, eleven are in Stream I and eight in Stream II, in close accord with the ratio 3:2 given by the 6,000 stars of Boss"s catalogue. "We are not able," says Eddington, "to detect any significant difference between the luminosities, spectra, or speeds of the stars const.i.tuting the two streams. The thorough interpenetration of the two star streams is well ill.u.s.trated, since we find even in this small volume of s.p.a.ce that members of both streams are mingled together in just about the average proportion."
[Ill.u.s.tration: THE RING NEBULA IN _Lyra_. This is the best example of the annular and elliptic nebulae, which are not very abundant.
(_Photo, Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory._)]
[Ill.u.s.tration: THE DUMB-BELL NEBULA OF _Vulpecula_. To take the photograph required an exposure of five hours. (_Photo, Mt.
Wilson Solar Observatory._)]
CHAPTER L
ACTUAL DIMENSIONS OF THE STARS
We have seen that the distances of the stars from the solar system are immense beyond conception, and millions upon millions of them are probably forever beyond our power of ascertaining by direct measurement what their distance really is. After we had found the sun"s distance and measured the angle filled by his disk, it was easy to calculate his actual size. This direct method, however, fails when we try to apply it to the stars, because their distances are so vast that no star"s disk fills an angle of any appreciable size; and even if we try to get a disk with the highest magnifying powers of a great telescope our efforts end only in failure. There is, indeed, no instrumentally appreciable angle to measure.
How then shall we ascertain the actual dimensions of the vast spheres which we know the stars actually are, as they exist in the remotest regions of s.p.a.ce? Clearly by indirect methods only, and it must be said that astronomers have as yet no general method that yields very satisfactory results for stellar dimensions. The actual magnitude of the variable system of Algol, Beta Persei, is among the best known of all the stars, because the spectroscope measures the rate of approach and recession of Algol when its invisible satellite is in opposite parts of the orbit; the law of gravitation gives the ma.s.s of the star and the size of its...o...b..t, and so the length of the eclipse gives the actual size of the dark, eclipsing body. This figures out to be practically the same size as that of our sun, while Algol"s own diameter is rather larger, exceeding a million miles.
If we try to estimate sizes of stars by their brightness merely, we are soon astray. Differences of brightness are due to difference of dimensions, of course, or of light-giving area; but differences of distance also affect the brightness, inversely as the squares of the distances, while differences of temperature and const.i.tution affect, in very marked degree, the intrinsic brilliance of the light-emitting surface of the star. There are big stars and little stars, stars relatively near to us and stars exceedingly remote, and stars highly incandescent as well as others feebly glowing.
We have already shown how the angular diameters subtended by many of the stars have been estimated, through the relation of surface brightness and spectral type. Antares and Betelgeuse appear to be the most inviting for investigation, because their estimated angular diameters are about one-twentieth of a second of arc. This is the way in which their direct measurement is being attempted.
As early as 1890, Michelson of Chicago suggested the application of interference methods to the accurate measurement of very small angles, such as the diameters of the minor planets, and the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, as well as the arc distance between the components of double stars. Two portions of the object gla.s.s are used, as far apart as possible on the same diameter, and the interference fringes produced at the focus of the objective are then the subject of observation. These fringes form a series of equidistant interference bands, and are most distinct when the light comes from a source subtending an infinitesimal angle. If the object presents an appreciable angle, the visibility is less and may even become zero.
Michelson tested this method on the satellites of Jupiter at the Lick Observatory in 1891, and showed its accuracy and practicability.
Nevertheless, the method has not been taken up by astronomers, until very recently at the Mount Wilson Observatory, where Anderson has applied it to the measurement of close double stars. It is found that, contrary to general expectation, the method gives excellent results, even if the "seeing" is not the best--2 on a scale of 10, for instance.
To simplify the manipulation of the interferometer, a small plate with two apertures in it is placed in the converging beam of light coming from the telescope objective or mirror. The interference fringes formed in the focal plane are then viewed with an eyepiece of very high power, many thousand diameters. The resolving power of the interferometer is found to be somewhat more than double that of a telescope of the same aperture. By applying the interferometer method to Capella, arc distances of much less than one-twentieth of a second of arc were measured. More recently the method has been applied to the great star Betelgeuse in Orion, whose angular diameter was found to be 0".46, corresponding to an actual diameter of 260,000,000 miles, if the star"s parallax is as small as it appears to be.
CHAPTER LI
THE VARIABLE STARS
Spectacular as they are to the layman, novae, or temporary stars, are to the astronomers simply a cla.s.s among many thousands of stars which they call variables, or variable stars. There are a few objects cla.s.sified as irregular variables, one of which is very remarkable. We refer to Eta Argus, an erratic variable in the southern constellation Argo and surrounded by a well-known nebula. There is a pretty complete record of this star. Halley in 1677 when observing at Saint Helena recorded Eta Argus as of the fourth magnitude. During the 18th century, it fluctuated between the fourth magnitude and the second. Early in the 19th it rapidly waxed in brightness, fluctuating between the first and second magnitudes from 1822 to 1836. But two years later its light tripled, rivaling all the fixed stars except Canopus and Sirius. In 1843 it was even brighter for a few months, but since then it has declined fairly steadily, reaching a minimum at magnitude seven and a half in 1886, with a slight increase in brightness more recently. A period of half a century has been suggested, but it is very doubtful if Eta Argus has any regular period of variation.
Another very interesting cla.s.s of variables is known as the Omicron Ceti type. Nearly all the time they are very faint, but quite suddenly they brighten through several magnitudes, and then fade away, more or less slowly, to their normal condition of faintness. But the extraordinary thing is that most of these variables go through their fluctuations in regular periods: from six months to two years in length. The type star, Omicron Ceti, or Mira, is the oldest known variable, having been discovered by Fabricius in 1596. Most of the time it is a relatively faint star of the 12th magnitude; but once in rather less than a year its brightness runs up to the fourth, third and sometimes even the second magnitude, where it remains for a week or ten days, and afterward it recedes more slowly to its usual faintness, the entire rise and decline in brightness usually requiring about 100 days. The spectrum of Omicron Ceti contains many very bright lines, and a large proportion of the variable stars are of this type.
Another cla.s.s of variables is designated as the Beta Lyrae type. Their periods are quite regular, but there are two or more maxima and minima of light in each period, as if the variation were caused by superposed relations in some way. Their spectra show a complexity of helium and hydrogen bands. No wholly satisfactory explanation has yet been offered.
Probably they are double stars revolving in very small orbits compared with their dimensions, their plane of motion pa.s.sing nearly through the earth.
But the most interesting of all the variables are those of the Algol type, their light curves being just the reverse of the Omicron Ceti type; that is, they are at their maximum brightness most of the time, and then suffer a partial eclipse for a relatively brief interval. Algol goes through its variations so frequently that its period is very accurately known; it is 2d. 20h. 48m. 55.4s. For most of this period Algol is an easy second magnitude star; then in about four and a half hours it loses nearly five-sixths of its light, receding to the fourth magnitude. Here at minimum it remains for fifteen or twenty minutes, and then in the next three and a half hours it regains its full normal brilliancy of the second magnitude. During these fluctuations the star"s spectrum undergoes no marked changes. The spectra of all the Algol variables are of the first or Sirian type.
To explain the variation of the Algol type of variables is easy: a dark, eclipsing body, somewhat smaller than the primary is supposed to be traveling round it in an orbit lying nearly edgewise to our line of sight. The gravitation of this dark companion displaces Algol itself alternately toward and from the earth, because the two bodies revolve round their common center of gravity. With the spectroscope this alternate motion of Algol, now advancing and now receding at the rate of 26 miles per second, has been demonstrated; and the period of this motion synchronizes exactly with the period of the star"s variability.
Russell and Shapley have made extended studies of the eclipsing binaries, and developed the formulae by which the investigations of their orbits are conducted. Heretofore, visual binaries and spectroscopic binaries afforded the only means of deriving data regarding double systems, but it is now possible to obtain from the orbits of eclipsing variables fully as much information relating to binary systems in general and their bearing on stellar evolution. After an orbit has been determined from the photometric data of the light curve, the addition of spectroscopic data often permits the calculation of the ma.s.ses, dimensions and densities in terms of the sun. Shapley"s original investigation included the orbits of ninety eclipsing variables, and with the aid of hypothetical parallaxes, he computed the approximate position of each system in s.p.a.ce. The relation to the Milky Way is interesting, the condensation into the Galactic plane being very marked; only thirteen of the ninety systems being found at Galactic lat.i.tudes exceeding 30 degrees.
If we can suppose the variable stars covered with vast areas of spots, perhaps similar to the spots on the sun, and then combine the variation of these spot areas with rotation of the star on its axis, there is a possibility of explanation of many of the observed phenomena, especially where the range of variation is small. But for the Omicron Ceti type, no better explanation offers than that afforded by Sir Norman Lockyer"s collision theory. First he a.s.sumes that these stars are not condensed bodies, but still in the condition of meteoric swarms, and the revolution of lesser swarms around larger aggregations, in elliptic orbits of greater or less eccentricity, must produce vast mult.i.tudes of collisions; and these collisions, taking place at pretty regular periods, produce the variable maximum light by raising hosts of meteoric particles to a state of incandescence simultaneously.
The catalogues of variable stars now contain many thousands of these objects. They are often designated by the letters R, S, T, and so on, followed by the genitive form of the name of the constellation wherein they are found. Most of the recently found variables have a range of less than one magnitude. They are so distributed as to be most numerous in a zone inclined about 18 degrees to the celestial equator, and split in two near where the cleft in the Galaxy is located. Nearly all the temporary stars are in this duplex region. Bailey of Harvard a quarter century ago began the investigation of variables in close star cl.u.s.ters, where they are very abundant, with marked changes of magnitude within only a few hours.
Many amateur astronomers afford very great a.s.sistance to the professional investigator of variable stars by their cooperation in observing these interesting bodies, in particular the American a.s.sociation of Observers of Variable Stars, organized and directed by William Tyler Olcott.
For a high degree of accuracy in determining stellar magnitudes the photo-electric cell is unsurpa.s.sed. Stebbins of Urbana has been very successful in its application and he discovered the secondary minimum of Algol with the selenium cell. His most recent work was done with a pota.s.sium cell with walls of fused quartz, perfected after many trial attempts. The stars he has recently investigated are Lambda Tauri, and Pi Five Orionis. Combining results with those reached by the spectroscope, the ma.s.ses of the two component stars of the former are 2.5 and 1.0 that of the sun, and the radii are 4.8 and 3.6 times the sun"s.
Russell of Princeton thinks it probable that similar causes are at work in all these variables. In the case of the typical Novae there is evidence that when the outburst takes place a sh.e.l.l of incandescent gas is actually ejected by the star at a very high velocity. What may be the forces that cause such an explosion can only be guessed. Repeated outbursts have not, in the case of T Pyxidis, destroyed the star, because it has gone through this process three times in the past thirty years. Russell inclines to regard it as a standard process occurring somewhere in the stellar universe probably as often as once a year.
Novae, then, cannot be due to collisions between two stars, for even if we suppose the stars to be a thousand millions in number, no two should collide except at average intervals of many million years. The idea is gaining ground that the stars are vast storehouses of energy which they are gradually transforming into heat and radiating into s.p.a.ce. "Under ordinary circ.u.mstances, it is probable that the rate of generation of heat is automatically regulated to balance the loss by radiation. But it is quite conceivable that some sudden disturbance in the substance of the star, near the surface, might cause an abrupt liberation of a great amount of energy, sufficient to heat the surface excessively, and drive the hot material off into infinite s.p.a.ce, in much the form of a sh.e.l.l of gas, as seems to have been observed in the case of Nova Aquilae.... With the rapid advance of our knowledge of the properties of the stars on one hand, and of the very nuclei of atoms on the other, we may, perhaps before many years have pa.s.sed, find ourselves nearer a solution of the problem."
The Cepheid variables increase very rapidly in brightness from their least light to their maximum, and then fade out much more slowly, with certain irregularities or roughnesses of their light-curves when declining. Their spectral lines also shift in period with their variations of light. In the case of these variables, whose regular fluctuation of light cannot be due to eclipse, and is as a rule embraced within a few days, there is a fluctuation in color also between maximum and minimum, as if there were a periodic change in the star"s physical condition. Eddington and Shapley advocate the theory of a mechanical pulsation of the star as most plausible. Knowledge of the internal conditions of the stars make it possible to predict the period of pulsation within narrow limits; and for Delta Cephei this theoretical period is between four and ten days. Its observed period is five and one-third days, and corresponding agreement is found in all the Cepheids so far tested.
Shapley of Mount Wilson finds that the Cepheid variables with periods exceeding a day in length all lie close to the Galactic lane. So greatly have the studies of these objects progressed that, as before remarked, when we know the star"s period, we can get its absolute magnitude, and from this the star"s distance. On all sides of the sun, the distances of the Cepheids range up to 4,000 pa.r.s.ecs. So they indicate the existence of a Galactic system far greater in extent than any previously dealt with.
CHAPTER LII
THE NOVae, OR NEW STARS
New stars, or temporary stars, we have already mentioned in connection with variables. They are, next to comets, the most dramatic objects in the heavens. They may be variable stars which, in a brief period, increase enormously in brightness, and then slowly wane and disappear entirely, or remain of a very faint stellar magnitude.
In the ancient historical records are found accounts of several such stars. For instance, in the Chinese annals there is an allusion to such a stellar outburst in the constellation of Scorpio, B. C. 134. This was observed also by Hipparchus and, no doubt, it was the immediate incentive which led to his construction of the first known catalogue of stars, so that similar happenings might be detected in the future. In November, 1572, Tycho Brahe observed the most famous of all new stars, which blazed out in the constellation Ca.s.siopeia. In something over a year it had completely disappeared.
In 1604-1605 a new star of equal brightness was seen in Ophiuchus by Kepler; it also faded out to invisibility in 1606. Kepler and Tycho printed very complete records of these remarkable objects. The eighteenth century pa.s.sed without any new stars being seen or recorded.
There was one of the fifth magnitude in 1848, and another of the seventh magnitude in 1860; and in May, 1866, a star of the second magnitude suddenly made its appearance in Corona Borealis; and one of the third magnitude in Cygnus in November, 1876. The latter was fully observed by Schmidt of Athens and became a faint telescopic star within a few weeks. It is now of the fifteenth magnitude.
In 1885 astronomers were surprised to find suddenly a new star of the sixth magnitude very close to the brightest part of the great nebula in Andromeda; it ran its course in about six months, fading with many fluctuations in brightness, and no star is now visible in its position even with the telescope. Stars of this cla.s.s are known to astronomers as Novae, usually with the genitive of the constellation name, as Nova Andromedae.
In 1891-1892 Nova Aurigae made its spectacular appearance and yielded a distinctly double and complex spectrum for more than a month. Many pairs of lines indicated a community of origin as to substance, and accurate measurement showed a large displacement with a relative velocity of more than 500 miles per second. For each bright hydrogen line displaced toward the red there was a dark companion line or band about equally displaced toward the violet much as if the weird light of Nova Aurigae originated in a solid globe moving swiftly away from us and plunging into an irregular nebulous ma.s.s as swiftly approaching us. Parallax observations of Nova Aurigae made it immensely remote, perhaps within the Galaxy, and it still exists as a faint nebulous star.
In February, 1901, in the constellation Perseus appeared the most brilliant nova of recent years. It was first discovered by Dr. Anderson, an amateur of Glasgow, and at maximum on February 23 it outshone Capella. There were many unusual fluctuations in its waning brightness.
Its spectrum closely resembled that of Nova Aurigae, with calcium, helium, and hydrogen lines. In August, 1901, an enveloping nebula was discovered, and a month later certain wisps of this nebulosity appeared to have moved bodily, at a speed seventy-fold greater than ever previously observed in the stellar universe.
According to Sir Norman Lockyer"s meteoritic hypothesis, a vast nebulous region was invaded, not by one but by many meteor swarms, under conditions such that the effects of collision varied greatly in intensity. The most violent of these collisions gave birth to Nova Persei itself, and the least violent occurred subsequently in other parts of the disturbed nebula, perhaps immeasurably removed. This explanation would avoid the necessity of supposing actual motion of matter through s.p.a.ce at velocities heretofore un.o.bserved and inconceivably high. A recent photograph of Nova Persei, by Ritchey, reveals a nebulous ring of regular structure surrounding the star. The great power of the 60-inch has made it possible to photograph even the spectra of many of the novae of years ago which are now very faint. After the lapse of years the characteristic lines of the nebular spectrum generally vanish, as if the star had pa.s.sed out of the nebula--a plunge into which is generally thought to be the cause of the great and sudden outburst of light.