In dealing with problems of structure and motion in the Galactic system, the 100-inch telescope offers especial advantages, because of its vast light-gathering power. Studies of radial velocities of the stars have hitherto been necessarily confined to the brighter stars, for the most part even to those visible to the naked eye. While some of these are very distant, most of the stars whose radial velocities are known belong to a very limited group, perhaps const.i.tuting a distinct cl.u.s.ter of which the sun is a member, but in any event of insignificant proportions when contrasted with the Galaxy. Current spectrographic work with the 60-inch telescope includes stars of the eighth magnitude, and some even fainter. But while the 60-inch has enabled Adams to measure the distances of many remote stars by his new spectroscopic method, and to double the known extent (so far as spectroscopic evidence is concerned) of the star streams of Kapteyn, a much greater advance into s.p.a.ce is necessary to find out the community of motion among the stars comprising the Galactic system. The Hooker telescope will enable us to determine accurate radial velocities to stars of the eleventh magnitude, which doubtless truly represent the Galaxy.
In order to secure a maximum return within a reasonable period of time, the stars in the selected areas of Kapteyn will be given the preference, because of the vast amount of work already done, relating to their positions, proper motions, and visual and photographic magnitudes. Such consideration as spectral type, the known directions of star-streaming, and the position of the chosen regions with reference to the plane of the Galaxy are given adequate weight, and it is of fundamental importance that the method of spectroscopic parallaxes will permit dwarf stars to be distinguished from stars that are in the giant cla.s.s, but rendered faint by their much greater distance. In addition to these problems, the stellar spectrograms will provide rich material for study of the relationship between stellar ma.s.s and speed, and the nature of giant stars and dwarf stars.
Shapley"s recent studies of globular cl.u.s.ters have indicated the significance of these objects in both evolutional and structural problems, and the possibility of determining their parallaxes by a number of independent methods is of prime importance, both in its bearing on the structure of the universe and because it permits a host of apparent magnitudes to be at once transformed into absolute magnitudes. Here the advantage of the Hooker telescope is two-fold: at its 134-foot focus the increased scale of the crowded cl.u.s.ters makes it possible to select separate stars for spectrum photography (which could not be done with the 60-inch where the images were commingled); and the great gain in light is such that the spectra of stars to the 14th magnitude have been photographed in less than an hour.
Faint globular cl.u.s.ters, then, will comprise a large part of the early program with the 100-inch telescope: the faintest possible stars in them must be detected and their magnitudes and colors measured; spectral types must be determined, and the radial velocities of individual stars and of cl.u.s.ters as a whole; spectroscopic evidence of possible axial rotation of globular cl.u.s.ters must be searched for; and the method of spectroscopic parallaxes, as well as other methods, must be applied to ascertaining the distances of these cl.u.s.ters.
The possibility of dealing with many problems relating to the distribution and evolution of the faintest stars depends upon the establishment of photographic and photovisual magnitude scales. Below the twelfth magnitude, the only existing scale of standard visual or photovisual magnitudes is the Mount Wilson sequence, already extended by Seares to magnitude 17.5 with the 60-inch telescope.
Extension of this scale to even fainter magnitudes, and its application to the faintest stars within its range is an important task for this great telescope, as it will doubtless bring within range hundreds of millions of stars that are beyond the reach of the 60-inch. The giants among them will form for us the outer boundary of the Galactic system, while the dwarfs will be of almost equal interest from the evolutional standpoint. The photometric program of the 100-inch, then, will deal with such questions as the condensation of the fainter stars toward the Galactic plane, the color of the most distant stars, and the final settlement of the long inquiry regarding the possible absorption of light in s.p.a.ce.
[Ill.u.s.tration: GREAT SUN-SPOT GROUP, AUGUST 8, 1917. The disk in the lower left corner represents the comparative size of the earth.
(_Photo, Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory._)]
[Ill.u.s.tration: THE SUN"S DISK. The view shows the "rice grain"
structure of the photosphere and brilliant calcium flocculi.
(_Photo, Yerkes Observatory._)]
[Ill.u.s.tration: THE LUNAR SURFACE VISIBLE DURING A TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE MOON, FEBRUARY 8, 1906. (_Photo, Yerkes Observatory._)]
Another research of exceptional promise will be undertaken, which is of great importance in a general study of stellar evolution; and that is the determination of the spectral-energy curves of stars of various cla.s.ses, for the purpose of measuring their surface temperatures. A very few of the nebulae are found to be variable, and their peculiarities need investigation, also special problems of variable stars and temporary stars, and the spectra of the components of close double stars which are beyond the power of all other instruments to photograph.
Such a program of research conveys an excellent idea of many of the great problems that are under investigation by astronomers to-day, and gives some notion of the instrumental means requisite in executing comprehensive plans of this character. It will not escape notice that the climax of instrumental development attained at Mount Wilson has only been made possible by an unbroken chain of progress, link by link, each antecedent link being necessary to the successful forging of its following one. In very large part, and certainly indispensable to these instrumental advances, has the art of working in gla.s.s and metals been the mainstay of research. As we review the history of astronomical progress, from Galileo"s time to our own, the consummate genius of the artisan and his deft handiwork compel our admiration almost equally with the keen intelligence of the astronomer who uses these powerful engines of his own devising to wrest the secrets of nature from the heavens.
CHAPTER XXIV
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
Now let us go upward in imagination, far, far beyond the tops of the highest mountains, beyond the moon and sun, and outward in s.p.a.ce until we reach a point in the northern heavens millions and millions of miles away, directly above and equally distant from all points in the ecliptic, or path in which our earth travels yearly round the sun. Then we should have that sort of comprehensive view of the solar system which is necessary if we are to visualize as a whole the working of the vast machine, and the motions, sizes, and distances of all the bodies that comprise it. Of such stupendous mechanism our earth is part.
Or in lieu of this, let us attempt to get in mind a picture of the solar system by means of Sir William Herschel"s apt ill.u.s.tration: "Choose any well-leveled field. On it place a globe two feet in diameter. This will represent the sun; Mercury will be represented by a grain of mustard seed on the circ.u.mference of a circle 164 feet in diameter for its...o...b..t; Venus, a pea on a circle of 284 feet in diameter; the Earth also a pea, on a circle of 430 feet; Mars a rather larger pin"s head on a circle of 654 feet; the asteroids, grains of sand in orbits of 1,000 to 1,200 feet; Jupiter, a moderate sized orange in a circle of nearly half a mile across; Saturn, a small orange on a circle of four-fifths of a mile; Ura.n.u.s, a full-sized cherry or small plum upon the circ.u.mference of a circle more than a mile and a half; and finally Neptune, a good-sized plum on a circle about two miles and a half in diameter....
To imitate the motions of the planets in the above mentioned orbits, Mercury must describe its own diameter in 41 seconds; Venus in 4 minutes, 14 seconds; the Earth in 7 minutes; Mars in 4 minutes 48 seconds; Jupiter in 2 minutes 56 seconds; Saturn in 3 minutes 13 seconds; Ura.n.u.s in 2 minutes 16 seconds; and Neptune in 3 minutes 30 seconds."
Now, let us look earthward from our imaginary station near the north pole of the ecliptic. All these planetary bodies would be seen to be traveling eastward round the sun, that is, in a counter-clockwise direction, or contrary to the motions of the hands of a timepiece. Their orbits or paths of motion are very nearly circular, and the sun is practically at the center of all of them except Mercury and Mars; of Venus and Neptune, almost at the absolute center. The planes of all their orbits are very nearly the same as that of the ecliptic, or plane in which the earth moves. These and many other resemblances and characteristics suggest a uniformity of origin which comports with the idea of a family, and so the whole is spoken of as the solar system, or the sun and his family of planets.
In addition to the nine bodies already specified, the solar system comprises a great variety of other and lesser bodies; no less than twenty-six moons or satellites tributary to the planets and traveling round them in various periods as the moon does round our earth. Then between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter are many thousands of asteroids, so called, or minor planets (about 1,000 of them have actually been discovered, and their paths accurately calculated). And at all sorts of angles with the planetary orbits are the paths of hundreds of comets, delicate filmy bodies of a wholly different const.i.tution from the planets, and which now and then blaze forth in the sky, their tails appearing much like the beam of a searchlight, and compelling for the time the attention of everybody. Connected with the comets and doubtless originally parts of them are uncounted millions of millions of meteors, which for the time become a part of the solar system, their minute ma.s.ses being attracted to the planets, upon which they fall, those hitting the earth being visible to us as familiar shooting stars.
We next follow the story of astronomy through the solar system, beginning with the sun itself and proceeding outward through his family of planets, now much more numerous and vastly more extended than it was to the ancient world, or indeed till within a century and a half of our own day.
CHAPTER XXV
THE SUN AND OBSERVING IT
As lord of day, king of the heavens, mankind in the ancient world adored the sun. By their researches into the epoch of the a.s.syrians, Hitt.i.tes, Phoenicians and other early peoples now pa.s.sed from earth, archaeologists have unearthed many monuments that evidence the veneration in which the early peoples who inhabited Egypt and Asia Minor many thousand years ago held the sun. A striking example is found in the architecture of early Egyptian temples, on the lintels of which are carved representations of the winged globe or the winged solar disk, and there is a bare possibility that the wings of the globe were suggested by a type of the solar corona as glimpsed by the ancients.
Little knew they about the distance and size of the sun; but the effects of his light and heat upon all vegetal and animal life were obvious to them. Doubtless this formed the basis for their worship of the sun.
Occasional huge spots must have been visible to the naked eye, and the sun"s corona was seen at rare intervals. Plutarch and Philostratus describe it very much as we see it to-day.
How completely dependent mankind is upon the sun and its powerful radiations, only the science of the present day can tell us. By means of the sun"s heat the forests of early geologic ages were enabled to wrest carbon from the atmosphere and store it in forms later converted by nature"s chemistry into peat and coal. Through processes but imperfectly understood, the varying forms of vegetable life are empowered to conserve, from air and soil, nitrogen and other substances suitable for and essential to the life maintenance of animal creatures. Breezes that bring rain and purify the air; the energy of water held under storage in stream and dam and fall; trade winds facilitating commerce between the continents; oceanic currents modifying coastal climates; the violence of tornado, typhoon and water-spout, together with other manifestations of natural forces--all can be traced back to their origin in the tremendous heating power of the solar rays. In everything material the sun is our constant and bountiful benefactor. If his light and heat were withdrawn, practically every form of human activity on this planet would come to an early end.
How far away is the sun? What is the size of the sun? These are questions that astronomers of the present day can answer with accuracy.
So closely do they know the sun"s distance that it is employed as their yardstick of the sky, or unit of celestial measurement. Many methods have been utilized in ascertaining the distance of the sun, and the remarkable agreement among them all is very extraordinary. Some of them depend upon pure geometry, and the basic measure which we make from the earth is not the distance of the sun directly; but we find out how far away Venus is during a transit of Venus, for example, or how far away Mars is or some of the asteroids are at their closer oppositions. Then it is possible to calculate how far away the sun is, because one measurement of distance in the solar system affords us the scale on which the whole structure is built. But perhaps the simplest method of getting the sun"s distance is by the velocity of light, 186,300 miles a second. From eclipses of Jupiter"s moons we know that light takes 8 minutes 20 seconds to pa.s.s from sun to earth. So that the sun"s distance is the simple product of the two, or 93 millions of miles.
Once this fundamental unit is established, we have a firm basis on which to build up our knowledge of the distances, the sizes and motions of the heavenly bodies, especially those that comprise the solar system. We can at once ascertain the size of the sun, which we do by measuring the angle which it fills, that is, the sun"s apparent diameter. Finding this to be something over a half a degree in arc, the processes of elementary trigonometry tell us that the sun"s globe is 865,000 miles in diameter.
For nearly a century this has been accurately measured with the greatest care, and diameters taken in every direction are found to be equal and invariably the same. So we conclude that the sun is a perfect sphere, and so far as our instruments can inform us, its actual diameter is not subject to appreciable change.
The vastness of the sun"s volume commands our attention. As his diameter is 110 times that of the earth, his mere size or volume is 110110110 or 1,300 thousand times that of the earth, because the volumes of spheres are in proportion as the cubes of their diameters. If the materials that compose the sun were as heavy as those that make up the earth, it would take 1,300 thousand earths to weigh as much as the sun does. But by a method which we need not detail here, the sun"s actual weight or ma.s.s is found to be only 300 thousand (more nearly 330,000), times greater than the earth"s. So we must infer that, bulk for bulk, the component materials of the sun are about one-fourth lighter than those of the earth, that is, about one and one-half times as dense as water.
To look at this in another way: it is known that a body falling freely toward the earth from outer s.p.a.ce would acquire a speed of seven miles a second, whereas if it were to fall toward the sun instead, the velocity would be 383 miles a second on reaching his surface. If all the other bodies of the solar system, that is, the earth and moon, all the planets and their satellites, the comets and all were to be fused together in a single globe, it would weigh only one-seven hundred and fiftieth as much as the sun does.
At the surface, however, the disproportion of gravity is not so great, because of the sun"s vast size: it is only about twenty-eight times greater on the sun than on the earth; and instead of a body falling 16 feet the first second as here, it would fall 444 feet there. Pendulums of clocks on the sun would swing five times for every tick here, and an athlete"s running high jump would be scaled down to three inches.
Let us next inquire into the amount of the sun"s light and heat, and the enormously high temperature of a body whose heat is so intense even at the vast distance at which we are from it. The intensity of its brightness is such that we have no artificial source of light that we can readily compare it with. In the sky the next object in brightness is the full moon, but that gives less than the half-millionth part as much light as the sun. The standard candle used in physics gives so little light in comparison that we have to use an enormous number to express the quant.i.ty of light that the sun gives.
A sperm candle burning 120 grains hourly is the standard, and if we compare this with the sun when overhead, and allow for the light absorbed by the atmosphere, we get the number 1575 with twenty-four ciphers following it, to express the candlepower of the sun"s light. If we interpose the intense calcium light or an electric arc light between the eye and the sun, these artificial sources will look like black spots on the disk. Indeed, the sun is nearly four times brighter than the "crater," or brightest part of the electric arc. The late Professor Langley at a steel works in Pennsylvania once compared direct sunlight with the dazzling stream of molten metal from a Bessemer converter; but bright as it was, sunlight was found to be five thousand times brighter.
Equally enormous is the heat of the sun. Our intensest sources of artificial heat do not exceed 4,000 degrees Fahrenheit, but the temperature at the sun"s surface is probably not less than 16,000 degrees F. One square meter of his surface radiates enough heat to generate 100,000 horsepower continuously. At our vast distance of 93 millions of miles, the sun"s heat received by the earth is still powerful enough to melt annually a layer of ice on the earth more than a hundred feet in thickness. If the solar heat that strikes the deck of a tropical steamship could be fully utilized in propelling it, the speed would reach at least ten knots.
Many attempts have been made in tropical and sub-tropical climates to utilize the sun"s heat directly for power, and Ericsson in Sweden, Mouchot in France, and Shuman in Egypt have built successful and efficient solar engines. Necessary intermission of their power at night, as well as on cloudy days, will preclude their industrial introduction until present fuels have advanced very greatly in cost. All regions of the sun"s disk radiate heat uniformly, and the sun"s own atmosphere absorbs so much that we should receive 1.7 times more heat if it were removed. So far as is known, solar light and heat are radiated equally in all directions, so that only a very minute fraction of the total amount ever reaches the earth, that is, 1 2200 millionth part of the whole. Indeed all the planets and other bodies of the solar system together receive only one one hundred millionth part; the vast remainder is, so far as we know, effectively wasted. It is transformed, but what becomes of it, and whether it ever reappears in any other form, we cannot say.
How is this inconceivably vast output of energy maintained practically invariable throughout the centuries? Many theories have been advanced, but only one has received nearly universal a.s.sent, that of secular contraction of the sun"s huge ma.s.s upon itself. Shrinkage means evolution of heat; and it is found by calculation that if the sun were to contract its diameter by shrinking only two-hundred and fifty feet per year, the entire output of solar heat might thus be accounted for.
So distant is the sun and so slow this rate of contraction that centuries must elapse before we could verify the theory by actual measurements. Meanwhile, the progress of physical research on the structure and elemental properties of matter has brought to light the existence of highly active internal forces which are doubtless intimately concerned in the enormous output of radiant energy, though the mechanism of its maintenance is as yet known only in part.
Abbot, from many years" observations of the solar constant, at Washington, on Mount Wilson, and in Algeria, finds certain evidence of fluctuation in the solar heat received by the earth. It cannot be a local phenomenon due to disturbances in our atmosphere, but must originate in causes entirely extraneous to the earth. Interposition of meteoric dust might conceivably account for it, but there is sufficient evidence to show that the changes must be attributed to the sun itself.
The sun, then, is a variable star; and it has not only a period connected with the periodicity of the sun spots, but also an irregular, nonperiodic variation during a cycle of a week or ten days, though sometimes longer, and occasioning irregular fluctuations of two to ten per cent of the total radiation. Radiation is found to increase with the spottedness.
Attempts have been made on the basis of the contraction theory to find out the past history of the sun and to predict its future. Probably 20 to 50 millions of years in the past represents the life of the sun much as it is at present; and if solar radiation in the future is maintained substantially as now, the sun will have shrunk to one-half its present diameter in the next five million years.
So far then as heat and light from the sun are concerned, the sun may continue to support life on the earth not to exceed ten million years in the future. But the sun"s own existence, independently of the orbs of the system dependent upon it, might continue for indefinite millions of aeons before it would ever become a cold dead globe; indeed, in the present state of science, we cannot be sure that it is destined to reach that condition within calculable time.
A few words on observing the sun, an object much neglected by amateurs.
On account of the intense light, a very slight degree of optical power is sufficient. Indeed a piece of window gla.s.s, smoked in a candle flame with uniform graduation from end to end, will be found worth while in a beginner"s daily observation of the sun. The gla.s.s should be smoked densely enough at one end so that the sunlight as seen through it will not dazzle the eye on the clearest days. At the other end of the gla.s.s, the degree of smoke film should not be quite so dense, so that the sun can be examined on hazy, foggy or partly cloudy days. An occasional naked-eye spot will reward the patient observer.
If a small spygla.s.s, opera gla.s.s or field gla.s.s is at hand, excellent views of the sun may be had by mounting the gla.s.s so that it can be held steadily pointed on the sun, and then viewing the disk by projection on a white card or sheet of paper. Care must be taken to get a good focus on the projected image, and then the faculae, or whitish spots, or mottling nearer the sun"s edge will usually be well seen. By moving the card farther away from the eyepiece, a larger disk may be obtained, in effect a higher degree of magnification. But care must be used not to increase it too much. Keep direct sunlight outside the tube from falling on the card where the image is being examined. This is conveniently done by cutting a large hole, the size of the bra.s.s cell of the object gla.s.s, through a sheet of corrugated strawboard, and slipping this on over the cell. In this way the spots on the sun can be examined with ease and safety to the eye.
For large instruments a special type of eyepiece is provided known as a helioscope, which disposes of the intense heat rays that are harmful to the eye. Frequent examination of the eyepiece should be made and the eyepiece cooled if necessary. That part of the sun"s surface under observation is known as the photosphere, that is, the part which radiates light. If the atmosphere admits the use of high magnifying powers, the structure of the photosphere will be found more and more interesting the higher the power employed. It is an irregularly mottled surface showing a species of rice-grain structure under fairly high magnification. These grains are grouped irregularly and are about 500 miles across. Under fine conditions of vision they may be subdivided into granules. The faculae, or white spots, are sometimes elevations above the general solar level; they have occasionally been seen projecting outside the limb, or edge of the disk.