Planetary nebulae and nebulous stars are yet another cla.s.s of nebulae, for the most part faint and small, resembling in some measure a planetary disk or a star with nebulous outline. Practically all are gaseous in composition, and have large radial velocities. Probably they are located within our own stellar system. The parallaxes of several of them have been measured by Van Maanen: one of the very small angle 0".023, which enables us to calculate the diameter of this faint but interesting object as equal to nineteen times the orbit of Neptune.
CHAPTER LIX
THE SPIRAL NEBULae
Last and most important of all are the spiral nebulae. The finest example is in the constellation Canes Venatici, and its spiral configuration was first noted by Lord Rosse, an epoch-making discovery. The convolutions of its spiral are filled with numerous starlike condensations, themselves engulfed in nebulosity. Photography possesses a vast advantage over the eye in revealing the marvelous character of this object, an inconceivably vast celestial whirlpool. Naturally the central regions of the whorl would revolve most swiftly, but no comparison of drawings and photographs, separated by intervals of many years, has yet revealed even a trace of any such motion.
The number of large spiral nebulae is not very great; the largest of all is the great nebula of Andromeda, whose length stretches over an arc of seven times the breadth of the moon, and its width about half as great.
This nebula is a naked-eye object near Eta Andromedae, and it is often mistaken for a comet. Optically it was always a puzzle, but photographs by Roberts of England first revealed the true spiral, with ringlike formations partially distinct, and knots of condensing nebulosity as of companion stars in the making. While its spectrum shows the nongaseous const.i.tution of this nebula, no telescope has yet resolved it into component stars.
Systematic search for spiral nebulae by Keeler, and later continued by Perrine, at the Lick Observatory, with the 36-inch Crossley reflector, disclosed the existence of vast numbers of these objects, in fact many hundreds of thousands by estimation; so that, next to the stars, the spiral nebulae are by far the most abundant of all objects in the sky.
They present every phase according to the angle of their plane with the line of sight, and the convolutions of the open ones are very perfectly marked. Many are filled with stars in all degrees of condensation, and the appearance is strongly as if stars are here caught in every step of the process of making.
The vast mult.i.tude of the spiral nebulae indicates clearly their importance in the theory of the cosmogony, or science of the development of the material universe. Curtis of the Lick Observatory has lately extended the estimated number of these objects to 700,000. He has also photographed with the Crossley reflector many nebulae with lanes or dark streaks crossing them longitudinally through or near the center. These remarkable streaks appear as if due to opaque matter between us and the luminous matter of the nebula beyond. Perhaps a dark ring of absorptive or occulting matter encircles the nebula in nearly the same plane with the luminous whorls. Duncan has employed the 60-inch Mount Wilson reflector in photographing bright nebulae and star cl.u.s.ters in the very interesting regions of Sagittarius. One of these shows unmistakable dark rifts or lanes in all parts of the nebula, resembling the dark regions of the neighboring Milky Way.
Pease of Mount Wilson has recently employed the 60-inch and the 100-inch reflectors of the Mount Wilson Observatory to good advantage in photographing several hundred of the fainter nebulae. Many of these are spirals, and others present very intricate and irregular forms. A search was made for additional spirals among the smaller nebulae along the Galaxy, but without success. Several of the supposedly variable nebulae are found to be unchanging. Many nights in each month when the moon is absent are devoted to a systematic survey of the smaller nebulae and their spectra by photography. The visible spiral figure of all these objects is a double-branched curve, its two arms joining on the nucleus in opposing points, and coiling round in the same geometrical direction.
The spiral nebulae, as to their distribution, are remote from the Galaxy, and the north Galactic polar region contains a greater aggregation than the south. The distances of the spiral nebulae are exceedingly great.
They lie far beyond the planetary and irregular gaseous nebulae, like that of Orion, which are closely related to the stars forming part of our own system. Possibly the spiral nebulae are exterior or separate "island universes." If so, they must be inconceivably vast in size, and would develop, not into solar systems, but into stellar cl.u.s.ters. The enormous radial velocities of the spiral nebulae, averaging 300 to 400 kilometers per second, or twenty-fold that of the stars, tend to sustain the view that they may be "island universes," each comparable in extent with the universe of stars to which our sun belongs.
Recent spectroscopic observations of the nebulae applying the principle of Doppler have revealed high velocities of rotation. Slipher of the Lowell Observatory made the first discovery of this sort and Van Maanen of Mount Wilson has detected in the great Ursa Major spiral, No. 101 in Messier"s catalogue, a speed of rotation at five minutes of arc from the center that would correspond to a complete period in 85,000 years.
As was to be expected, the nebula does not rotate as a rigid body, but the nearer the center the greater the angular velocity, and Van Maanen finds evidence of motion along the arms and away from the center.
These great velocities appear to belong to the spiral nebulae as a cla.s.s, and not to other nebulae. Thirteen nebulae investigated by Keeler are as a whole almost at rest relatively to our system, as are the large irregular objects in Orion, and the Trifid nebula. This would seem to indicate that the spiral nebulae form systems outside our own and independent of it.
Quite different from the spirals in their distribution through s.p.a.ce are the planetary nebulae. The spirals follow the early general law of nebulae arrangement, that is, they are concentrated toward the poles of the Galaxy; but the planetary nebulae, on the other hand, are very few near the poles and show a marked frequency toward the Galactic plane.
Campbell and Moore have found spectroscopic evidence of internal rotatory motion in a large proportion of the planetary nebulae.
The distribution of the nebulae throughout s.p.a.ce, like that of the stars, is still under critical investigation, but the location of vast numbers of the more compact nebulae on the celestial sphere is very extraordinary. The Milky Way appears to be the determining plane in both cases; the nearer we approach it the more numerous the stars become, whereas this is the general region of fewest nebulae and they increase in number outward in both directions from the Galaxy, and toward both poles of the Galactic circle. Obviously this relation, or contra-relation of stars and nebulae on such a vast scale is not accidental, and it also must be duly accounted for in the true theory of the cosmogony. The nebulae which are found princ.i.p.ally in and near the Milky Way are the large irregular nebulae, and vast nebulous backgrounds, like those photographed by Barnard in Scorpio, Taurus and elsewhere, as well as the Keyhole, Omega, and Trifid nebulae. Allied to these backgrounds are doubtless some of the dark Galactic s.p.a.ces, radiating little or no intrinsic light, and absorbing the light of the fainter stars beyond them. A peculiar veiled or tinted appearance has been remarked in some cases visually, and examination of the photographs strongly confirms the existence of absorbing nebulosity.
The spiral nebulae are so abundant, and so much attention is now being given to them, both by observers and mathematicians, that their precise relation to the stellar systems must soon be known; that is, whether they are comparatively small objects belonging to the stellar system, or independent systems on the borders of the stellar system, or as seems more likely, vast and exceedingly remote galaxies comparable with that of the Milky Way itself. Our knowledge of the motions of the spirals, both radial and angular, is increasing rapidly, and must soon permit accurate general conclusions to be drawn.
CHAPTER LX
COSMOGONY
Down to the middle of the last century and later, it was commonly believed that in the beginning the cosmos came into being by divine fiat substantially as it is. Previously the earth had been "without form and void," as in the Scripture. Had it not been for the growth and gradual acceptance of the doctrine of evolution, and its reactionary effect upon human thought, it is conceivable that the early view might have persisted to the present day; but now it is universally held that everything in the heavens above and the earth beneath is subject more or less to secular change, and is the result of an orderly development throughout indefinite past ages, a progressive evolution which will continue through indefinite aeons of the future.
In the writings of the Greek philosophers, and down through the Middle Ages we find the idea of an original "chaos" prevailing, with no indication whatever of the modern view of the process by which the cosmos came to be what they saw it and as it is to-day. If we go still farther back, there is no glimmer of any ideas that will bear investigation by scientific method, however interesting they may be as purely philosophical conceptions. Many ancient philosophers, among them Anaxagoras, Democritus, and Anaximenes, regarded the earth as the product of diffused matter in a state of the original chaos having fallen together haphazard, and they even presumed to predict its future career and ultimate destiny.
In Anaximander and Anaximenes alone do we find any conception of possible progress; their thought was that as the world had taken time to become what it is, so in time it would pa.s.s, and as the entire universe had undergone alternate renewal and destruction in the past, that would be its history in the future. Aristotle, Ptolemy, and others appear to have held the curious notion that although everything terrestrial is evanescent, nevertheless the cosmos beyond the orbit of the moon is imperishable and eternal.
By tracing the history of the intellectual development of Europe we may find why it was that scientific speculation on the cosmogony was delayed until the 18th century, and then undertaken quite independently by three philosophers in three different countries. Swedenborg, the theologian, set down in due form many of the principles that underlie the modern nebular hypothesis. Thomas Wright of Durham whose early theory of the arrangement of stars in the Galaxy we have already mentioned, speculated also on the origin and development of the universe, and his writings were known to Kant, who is now regarded as the author of the modern nebular hypothesis. This presents a definite mechanical explanation of the development and formation of the heavenly bodies, and in particular those composing the solar system.
Kant was ill.u.s.trious as a metaphysician, but he was a great physicist or natural philosopher as well, and he set down his ideas regarding the cosmogony with precision. Learned in the philosophy of the ancients, he did not follow their speculative conceptions, but merely a.s.sumed that all the materials from which the bodies of the solar system have been fashioned were resolved into their original elements at the beginning, and filled all that part of s.p.a.ce in which they now move. True, this is pretty near the chaos of the Greeks, but Kant knew of the operation of the Newtonian law of gravitation, which the Greeks did not.
As a natural result of gravitative processes, Kant inferred that the denser portions of the original ma.s.s would draw upon themselves the less dense portions, whirling motions would be everywhere set up, and the process would continue until many spherical bodies, each with a gaseous exterior in process of condensation, had taken the place of the original elements which filled s.p.a.ce. In this manner Kant would explain the sameness in direction of motion, both orbital and axial, of all the planets and satellites of our system. But many philosophers are of the opinion that Kant"s hypothesis would result, not in the formation of such a collection of bodies as the solar system is, but rather in a single central sun formed by common gravitation toward a single center.
From quite another viewpoint the work of the elder Herschel is important here. No one knew the nebulae from actual observation better than he did; but, while his ideas about their composition were wrong, he nevertheless conceived of them as gradually condensing into stars or cl.u.s.ters of stars. And it was this speculative aspect of the nebulae, not as a possible means of accounting for the birth and development of the solar system, which const.i.tutes Herschel"s chief contribution to the nebular hypothesis. Cla.s.sifying the nebulae which he had carefully studied with his great telescopes, it seemed obvious to him that they were actually in all the different stages of condensation, and subsequent research has strongly tended to substantiate the Herschelian view.
Then came Laplace, who took up the great hypothesis where Kant and Herschel had left it, added new and important conceptions in the light of his mature labors as mathematician and astronomer, and put the theory in definitive form, such that it has ever since been known under the name of Laplacian nebular hypothesis. For reasons like those that prevailed with Kant, he began the evolution of the solar system with the sun already formed as the center, but surrounded by a vast incandescent atmosphere that filled all the s.p.a.ce which the sun"s family of planets now occupy. This entire ma.s.s, sun, atmosphere, and all, he conceived to have a stately rotation about its axis. With rotation of the ma.s.s and slow reduction of temperature in its outer regions, there would be contraction toward the solar center, and an increase in velocity of rotation until the whole ma.s.s had been much reduced in diameter at its poles and proportionately expanded at its equator.
When the centrifugal force of the outer equatorial ma.s.ses finally became equal to the gravitational forces of the central ma.s.s, then these conjoined outer portions would be left behind as a ring, still revolving at the velocity it had acquired when detached. The revolution of the entire inner ma.s.s goes on, its velocity accelerating until a similar equilibration of forces is again reached, when a second rotating ring is left behind. Laplace conceived the process as repeated until as many rings had been detached as there are individual planets, all central about the sun, or nearly so.
In all, then, we should have nine gaseous rings; the outer ones preceding the inner in formation, but not all existing as rings at the same time. Radiation from the ring on all sides would lead to rapid contraction of its ma.s.s, so that many nuclei of condensation would form, of various sizes, all revolving round the central sun in practically the same period. Laplace conceived the evolution of the ring to proceed still farther till the largest aggregation in it had drawn to itself all the other separate nuclei in the ring.
This, then, was the planet in embryo, in effect a diminutive sun, a secondary incandescent ma.s.s endowed with axial rotation in the same direction as the parent nebula. With reduction of temperature by radiation, polar contraction and equatorial expansion go on, and planetary rings are detached from this secondary ma.s.s in exactly the same way as from the original sun nebula. And these planetary rings are, in the Laplacian hypothesis, the embryo moons or planetary satellites, all revolving round their several planets in the same direction that the planets revolve about the sun.
In the case of one of the planetary rings, its formation was so nearly h.o.m.ogeneous throughout that no aggregation into a single satellite was possible; all portions of the ring being of equal density, there was no denser region to attract the less dense regions, and in this manner the rings of Saturn were formed, in lieu of condensation into a separate satellite. Similarly in the case of the primal solar ring that was detached next after the Jovian ring; there was such a nice balancing of ma.s.ses and densities that, instead of a single major planet, we have the well-known asteroidal ring, composed of innumerable discrete minor planets.
This, then, in bare outline, is the Laplacian nebular hypothesis, and it accounted very well for the solar system as known in his day; the fairly regular progression of planetary distances; their orbits round the sun all nearly circular and approximately in a single plane; the planetary and satellite revolutions in orbit all in the same direction; the axial rotations of planets in the same direction as their orbital revolutions; and the plane of orbital revolution of the satellites practically coinciding with the plane of the planet"s axial rotation. But the principle of conservation of energy was, of course, unknown to Laplace, nor had the mechanical equivalence of heat with other forms of energy been established in his day.
In 1870, Lane of Washington first demonstrated the remarkable law that a gaseous sphere, in process of losing heat by radiation and contraction because of its own gravity, actually grows hotter instead of cooler, as long as it continues to be gaseous, and not liquid or solid. So there is no need of postulating with Laplace an excessively high temperature of the original nebula. The chief objection to Laplace"s hypothesis by modern theorists is that the detachment of rings, though possible, would likely be a rare occurrence; protuberances or lumps on the equatorial exterior of a swiftly revolving ma.s.s would be more likely, and it is much easier to see how such ma.s.ses would ultimately become planets than it is to follow the disruption of a possible ring and the necessary steps of the process by which it would condense into a final planet. The continued progress of research in many departments of astronomy has had important bearing on the nebular hypothesis, and we may rest a.s.sured that this hypothesis in somewhat modified form can hardly fail of ultimate acceptance, though not in every essential as its great originator left it.
Lord Rosse"s discovery of spiral nebulae, followed up by Keeler"s photographic search for these bodies, revealing their actual existence in the heavens by the hundreds of thousands, has led to another criticism of the Laplacian theory. Could Laplace have known of the existence of these objects in such vast numbers, his hypothesis would no doubt have been suitably modified to account for their formation and development. It is generally considered that the ring of Saturn suggested to Laplace the ring feature in his scheme of origin of planets and satellites; so far as we know, the Saturnian ring is unique, the only object of its kind in the heavens. Whereas, next to the star itself, the spiral nebula is the type object which occurs most frequently. A theory, therefore, which will satisfactorily account for the origin and development of spiral nebulae must command recognition as of great importance in the cosmogony.
Such a theory has been set forth by Chamberlin and Moulton in their planetesimal hypothesis, according to which the genesis of spiral nebulae happens when two giant suns approach each other so closely that tide-producing effects take place on a vast scale. These suns need not be luminous; they may perhaps belong to the cla.s.s of dark or extinguished suns. The evidences of the existence of such in vast numbers throughout the universe is thought to be well established.
Now, on close approach, what happens? There will be huge tides, and the nearer the bodies come to each other, the vaster the scale on which tides will be formed. If the bodies are liquid or gaseous, they will be distorted by the force of gravitation, and the figure of both bodies will become ellipsoidal; and at last under greater stress, the restraining sh.e.l.l of both bodies will burst asunder on opposite sides in streams of matter from the interior. In this manner the arms of the spiral are formed.
As Chamberlin puts it: "If, with these potent forces thus nearly balanced, the sun closely approaches another sun, or body of like magnitude ... the gravity which restrains this enormous elastic power will be reduced along the line of mutual attraction. At the same time the pressure transverse to this line of relief will be increased. Such localized relief and intensified pressure must bring into action corresponding portions of the sun"s elastic potency, resulting in protuberances of corresponding ma.s.s and high velocity."
Only a fraction of one per cent of the sun"s ma.s.s ejected in this fashion would be sufficient to generate the entire planetary system.
Nuclei or knots in the arms of the spiral gradually grew by accretion, the four interior knots forming Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars. The earth knot was a double one, which developed into the earth-moon system.
The absence of a dominating nucleus beyond Mars accounts for the zone of the asteroids remaining in some sense in the original planetesimal condition. The vaster nuclei beyond Mars gradually condensed into Jupiter, Saturn, Ura.n.u.s, and Neptune; and lesser nuclei related to the larger ones form the systems of moons or satellites.
The orbits of the planetesimals and the planetary and satellite nuclei would be very eccentric, forming a confusion of ellipses with frequently crossing paths. Collisions would occur, and the nuclei would inevitably grow by accretion. Each planet, then, would clear up the planetesimals of its zone; and Moulton shows that this process would give rise to axial revolution of the planet in the same direction as its...o...b..tal revolution. The eccentricities would finally disappear, and the entire ma.s.s would revolve in a nearly circular orbit.
Rotation twists the streams into the spiral form, and the huge amounts of wreckage from the near-collision are thrown into eddies. The fragments or particles (planetesimals) which have given the name to the theory, begin their motion round their central sun in elliptical paths as required by gravitation. The form of the spiral is preserved by the orbital motion of its particles. There is a gradual gathering together of the planetesimals at points or nodes of intersection, and these become aggregations of matter, nuclei that will perhaps become planets, though more likely other stars. The appulse or near approach is but one of the methods by which the spiral nebulae may have come into existence.
The planetesimal hypothesis would seem to account for the formation of many of these objects as we see them in the sky, though perhaps it is hardly competent to replace entirely the Laplacian hypothesis of the formation of the solar system, which would appear to be a special case by itself.
It will be observed that while the Laplacian hypothesis is concerned in the main with the progressive development of the solar system, and systems of a like order surrounding other stellar centers, whose existence is highly probable, the origin and development of the stellar universe is a vaster problem which can only be undertaken and completed in its broadest bearings when the structure of the stellar universe has been ascertained.
Darwin"s important investigations in 1877-1878 on tidal friction may be here related. Before his day acceptance of the ring-theory of development of the moon from the earth had scarcely been questioned; but his recondite mathematical researches on the tidal reaction between a central yielding ma.s.s and a body revolving round it brought to light the unsuspected effect of tides raised upon both bodies by their mutual attraction. The type of tides here meant is not the usual rise and fall of the waters of the ocean, but primeval tides in the plastic material of which the earth in its early history was composed. The Newtonian law of gravitation afforded a complete explanation of the rise and fall of the waters of the oceans, but as applied to the motions of planets and satellites by the Lagrangian formulae, it presupposed that all these bodies are rigid and unyielding. However, mutual tides of phenomenal height in their early plastic substances must have been a necessary consequence of the action of the Newtonian law, and they gradually drew upon the earth"s rotational moment of momentum.
In its very early history, before there was any moon to produce tides, the earth rotated much more rapidly, that is, the day was very much shorter than now, probably about five or six hours long. And with the rapid whirling, it was not a Laplacian ring that was detached, but a huge globular ma.s.s was separated from the plastic earth"s equator.
Darwin shows that the gravitative interaction of the two bodies immediately began to raise tides of extraordinary height in both, therefore tending to slow down the rotational periods of both bodies.
Action and reaction being equal, the reaction at once began driving the moon away from the earth and thereby lengthening its period of revolution. So small was the ma.s.s of the moon and so near was it to the earth, that its relative rotational energy was in time completely used up, and the moon has ever since turned her constant face toward us.
Tides of sun and moon in the plastic earth, acting through the ages, slowed down the earth"s rotation to its present period, or the length of the day.
Moulton, however, has investigated the tidal theory of the origin of the moon in the light of the planetesimal hypothesis, concluding that the moon never was part of the earth and separated therefrom by too rapid rotation of the earth, but that the distance of the two bodies has always been the same as now. The more ma.s.sive earth has in its development throughout time robbed the less ma.s.sive moon in the gradual process of accretion. So the moon has never acquired either an ocean or atmosphere, and this view is acceptable to geologists who have studied the sheer lunar surface, Shaler of Harvard among the first, and laid the foundations for a separate science of selenology.