[128] "Sometimes the states," says Plutarch, "veered to democracy-- sometimes to arbitrary power;" that is, at one time the n.o.bles invoked the people against the king; but if the people presumed too far, they supported the king against the people. If we imagine a confederacy of Highland chiefs even a century or two ago--give them a nominal king-- consider their pride and their jealousy--see them impatient of authority in one above them, yet despotic to those below--quarrelling with each other--united only by clanship, never by citizenship;--and place them in a half-conquered country, surrounded by hostile neighbours and mutinous slaves--we may then form, perhaps, some idea of the state of Sparta previous to the legislation of Lycurgus.
[129] When we are told that the object of Lycurgus was to root out the luxury and effeminacy existent in Sparta, a moment"s reflection tells us that effeminacy and luxury could not have existed. A tribe of fierce warriors, in a city unfortified--shut in by rocks--hara.s.sed by constant war--gaining city after city from foes more civilized, stubborn to bear, and slow to yield--maintaining a perilous yoke over the far more numerous races they had subdued--what leisure, what occasion had such men to become effeminate and luxurious?
[130] See Mueller"s Dorians, vol. ii., p. 12 (Translation).
[131] In the same pa.s.sage Aristotle, with that wonderful sympathy in opinion between himself and the political philosophers of our own day, condemns the principle of seeking and canva.s.sing for suffrages.
[132] In this was preserved the form of royalty in the heroic times.
Aristotle well remarks, that in the council Agamemnon bears reproach and insult, but in the field he becomes armed with authority over life itself--"Death is in his hand."
[133] Whereas the modern republics of Italy rank among the causes which prevented their a.s.suming a widely conquering character, their extreme jealousy of their commanders, often wisely ridiculed by the great Italian historians; so that a baggage-cart could scarcely move, or a cannon be planted, without an order from the senate!
[134] Mueller rightly observes, that though the ephoralty was a common Dorian magistrature, "yet, considered as an office, opposed to the king and council, it is not for that reason less peculiar to the Spartans; and in no Doric, nor even in any Grecian state is there any thing which exactly corresponds with it."
[135] They rebuked Archidamus for having married too small a wife.
See Mueller"s Dorians, vol. ii. (Translation), p. 124, and the authorities he quotes.
[136] Aristot. Pol., lib. ii., c. 9.
[137] Idem.
[138] These remarks on the democratic and representative nature of the ephoralty are only to be applied to it in connexion with the Spartan people. It must be remembered that the ephors represented the will of that dominant cla.s.s, and not of the Laconians or Perioeci, who made the bulk of the non-enslaved population; and the democracy of their const.i.tution was therefore but the democracy of an oligarchy.
[139] Machiavel (Discourses on the first Decade of Livy, b. i., c.
vi.), attributes the duration of the Spartan government to two main causes--first, the fewness of the body to be governed, allowing fewness in the governors; and secondly, the prevention of all the changes and corruption which the admission of strangers would have occasioned. He proceeds then to show that for the long duration of a const.i.tution the people should be few in number, and all popular impulse and innovation checked; yet that, for the splendour and greatness of a state, not only population should be encouraged, but even political ferment and agitation be leniently regarded. Sparta is his model for duration, republican Rome for progress and empire. "To my judgment," the Florentine concludes, "I prefer the latter, and for the strife and emulation between the n.o.bles and the people, they are to be regarded indeed as inconveniences, but necessary to a state that would rise to the Roman grandeur."
[140] Plut. de Musica.
[141] At Corinth they were abolished by Periander as favourable to an aristocracy, according to Aristotle; but a better reason might be that they were dangerous to tyranny.
[142] "Yet, although goods were appropriated, their uses," says Aristotle, "were freely communicated,--a Spartan could use the horses, the slaves, the dogs, and carriages of another." If this were to be taken literally, it is difficult to see how a Spartan could be poor.
We must either imagine that different times are confounded, or that limitations with which we are unacquainted were made in this system of borrowing.
[143] See, throughout the Grecian history, the Helots collecting the plunder of the battle-field, hiding it from the gripe of their lords, and selling gold at the price of bra.s.s!
[144] Aristotle, who is exceedingly severe on the Spartan ladies, says very shrewdly, that the men were trained to submission to a civil by a military system, while the women were left untamed. A Spartan hero was thus made to be henpecked. Yet, with all the alleged severity of the Dorian morals, these st.u.r.dy matrons rather discarded the graces than avoided the frailties of their softer contemporaries.
Plato [Plat. de legibus, lib. i. and lib. vi.] and Aristotle [Aristot.
Repub., lib. ii.] give very unfavourable testimonials of their chast.i.ty. Plutarch, the blind panegyrist of Sparta, observes with amusing composure, that the Spartan husbands were permitted to lend their wives to each other; and Polybius (in a fragment of the 12th book) [Fragm. Vatican., tom. ii., p. 384.] informs us that it was an old-fashioned and common custom in Sparta for three or four brothers to share one wife. The poor husbands!--no doubt the lady was a match for them all! So much for those gentle creatures whom that grave German professor, M. Mueller, holds up to our admiration and despair.
[145] In Homer the condition of the slave seems, everywhere, tempered by the kindness and indulgence of the master.
[146] Three of the equals always attended the king"s person in war.
[147] The inst.i.tution of the ephors has been, with probability, referred to this epoch--chosen at first as the viceroys in the absence of the kings.
[148] Pausanias, Messenics.
[149] See Mueller"s Dorians, vol. i., p. 172, and Clinton"s Fast.
h.e.l.l. vol. i., p. 183.
[150] For the dates here given of the second Messenian war see Fast.
h.e.l.l., vol. i., 190, and Appendix 2.
[151] Now called Messina.
[152] In Phocis were no less than twenty-two states (poleis); in Boeotia, fourteen; in Achaia, ten. The ancient political theorists held no community too small for independence, provided the numbers sufficed for its defence. We find from Plato that a society of five thousand freemen capable of bearing arms was deemed powerful enough to const.i.tute an independent state. One great cause of the ascendency of Athens and Sparta was, that each of those cities had from an early period swept away the petty independent states in their several territories of Attica and Laconia.
[153] Machiavel (Discor., lib. i., c. ii.).
[154] Lib. iv., c. 13.
[155] Aristotle cites among the advantages of wealth, that of being enabled to train horses. Wherever the n.o.bility could establish among themselves a cavalry, the const.i.tution was oligarchical. Yet, even in states which did not maintain a cavalry (as Athens previous to the const.i.tution of Solon), an oligarchy was the first form of government that rose above the ruins of monarchy.
[156] One princ.i.p.al method of increasing the popular action was by incorporating the neighbouring villages or wards in one munic.i.p.ality with the capital. By this the people gained both in number and in union.
[157] Sometimes in ancient Greece there arose a species of lawful tyrants, under the name of Aesymnetes. These were voluntarily chosen by the people, sometimes for life, sometimes for a limited period, and generally for the accomplishment of some particular object. Thus was Pittacus of Mitylene elected to conduct the war against the exiles.
With the accomplishment of the object he abdicated his power. But the appointment of Aesymnetes can hardly be called a regular form of government. They soon became obsolete--the mere creatures of occasion. While they lasted, they bore a strong resemblance to the Roman dictators--a resemblance remarked by Dionysius, who quotes Theophrastus as agreeing with Aristotle in his account of the Aesymnetes.
[158] For, as the great Florentine has well observed, "To found well a government, one man is the best--once established, the care and execution of the laws should be transferred to many."--(Machiavel.
Discor., lib. i., c. 9.) And thus a tyranny builds the edifice, which the republic hastens to inhabit.
[159] That of Orthagoras and his sons in Sicyon. "Of all governments," says Aristotle, "that of an oligarchy, or of a tyrant, is the least permanent." A quotation that cannot be too often pressed on the memory of those reasoners who insist so much on the brief duration of the ancient republics.
[160] Besides the representation necessary to confederacies--such as the Amphictyonic League, etc., a representative system was adopted at Mantinea, where the officers were named by deputies chosen by the people. "This form of democracy," says Aristotle, "existed among the shepherds and husbandmen of Arcadia;" and was probably not uncommon with the ancient Pelasgians. But the myrioi of Arcadia had not the legislative power.
[161] "Then to the lute"s soft voice prolong the night, Music, the banquet"s most refined delight."
Pope"s Odyssey, book xxi., 473.
It is stronger in the original--
Moltae kai phormingi tu gar t"anathaemata daitos.
[162] Iliad, book ix., Pope"s translation, line 250.
[163] Heyne, F. Clinton, etc.
[164] Pope"s translation, b. iv., line 75, etc.
[165] At least this pa.s.sage is sufficient to refute the arguments of Mr. Mitford, and men more learned than that historian, who, in taking for their premises as an indisputable fact the extraordinary a.s.sumption, that Homer never once has alluded to the return of the Heraclidae, arrive at a conclusion very illogical, even if the premises were true, viz., that therefore Homer preceded the date of that great revolution.
[166] I own that this seems to me the most probable way of accounting for the singular and otherwise disproportioned importance attached by the ancient poets to that episode in the Trojan war, which relates to the feud of Achilles and Agamemnon. As the first recorded enmity between the great Achaeans and the warriors of Phthiotis, it would have a solemn and historical interest both to the conquering Dorians and the defeated Achaeans, flattering to the national vanity of either people.
[167] I adopt the a.n.a.lysis of the anti-Homer arguments so clearly given by Mr. Coleridge in his eloquent Introduction to the Study of the Greek Poets. Homer, p. 39.
[168] en spanei biblon, are the words of Herodotus. Leaves and the bark of trees were also used from a very remote period previous to the common use of the papyrus, and when we are told that leaves would not suffice for works of any length or duration, it must not be forgotten that in a much later age it was upon leaves (and mutton bones) that the Koran was transcribed. The rudest materials are sufficient for the preservation of what men deem it their interest to preserve!
[169] See Clinton"s F. H., vol. i., p. 145.