Three Cylinder a. Vertical b. Horizontal c. Rotary (Cylinders s.p.a.ced at 120 Degrees) d. Radially Placed (Stationary Cylinders) e. One Vertical, One Each Side at an Angle f. Compound (Two High Pressure, One Low Pressure)
Four Cylinder a. Vertical b. Horizontal (Side by Side) c. Horizontal (Two Pairs Opposed) d. 45 to 90 Degrees V e. Twin Tandem (Double Acting)
Five Cylinder a. Vertical (Five Throw Crankshaft) b. Radially s.p.a.ced at 72 Degrees (Stationary) c. Radially Placed Above Crankshaft (Stationary) d. Placed Around Rotary Crankcase (72 Degrees s.p.a.cing)
Six Cylinder a. Vertical b. Horizontal (Three Pairs Opposed) c. 45 to 90 Degrees V
Seven Cylinder a. Equally s.p.a.ced (Rotary)
Eight Cylinder a. Vertical b. Horizontal (Four Pairs Opposed) c. 45 to 90 Degrees V
Nine Cylinder a. Equally s.p.a.ced (Rotary)
Twelve Cylinder a. Vertical b. Horizontal (Six Pairs Opposed) c. 45 to 90 Degrees V
Fourteen Cylinder a. Rotary
Sixteen Cylinder a. 45 to 90 Degrees V b. Horizontal (Eight Pairs Opposed)
Eighteen Cylinder a. Rotary Cylinder
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2.--Plate Showing Heavy, Slow Speed Internal Combustion Engines Used Only for Stationary Power in Large Installations Giving Weight to Horse-Power Ratio.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 3.--Various Forms of Internal Combustion Engines Showing Decrease in Weight to Horse-Power Ratio with Augmenting Speed of Rotation.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 4.--Internal Combustion Engine Types of Extremely Fine Construction and Refined Design, Showing Great Power Outputs for Very Small Weight, a Feature Very Much Desired in Airplane Power Plants.]
Of all the types enumerated above engines having less than eight cylinders are the most popular in everything but aircraft work. The four-cylinder vertical is without doubt the most widely used of all types owing to the large number employed as automobile power plants.
Stationary engines in small and medium powers are invariably of the single or double form. Three-cylinder engines are seldom used at the present time, except in marine work and in some stationary forms.
Eight- and twelve-cylinder motors have received but limited application and practically always in automobiles, racing motor boats or in aircraft.
The only example of a fourteen-cylinder motor to be used to any extent is incorporated in aeroplane construction. This is also true of the sixteen- and eighteen-cylinder forms and of twenty-four-cylinder engines now in process of development.
The duty an engine is designed for determines the weight per horse-power. High powered engines intended for steady service are always of the slow speed type and consequently are of very ma.s.sive construction. Various forms of heavy duty type stationary engines are shown at Fig. 2. Some of these engines may weigh as much as 600 pounds per horse-power. A further study is possible by consulting data given on Figs. 3 and 4. As the crank-shaft speed increases and cylinders are multiplied the engines become lighter. While the big stationary power plants may run for years without attention, airplane engines require rebuilding after about 60 to 80 hours air service for the fixed cylinder types and 40 hours or less for the rotary cylinder air-cooled forms.
There is evidently a decrease in durability and reliability as the weight is lessened. These ill.u.s.trations also permit of obtaining a good idea of the variety of forms internal combustion engines are made in.
CHAPTER II
Operating Principles of Two- and Four-Stroke Engines--Four-cycle Action--Two-cycle Action--Comparing Two- and Four-cycle Types-- Theory of Gas and Gasoline Engine--Early Gas-Engine Forms-- Isothermal Law--Adiabatic Law--Temperature Computations--Heat and Its Work--Conversion of Heat to Power--Requisites for Best Power Effect.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF TWO- AND FOUR-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
Before discussing the construction of the various forms of internal combustion engines it may be well to describe the operating cycle of the types most generally used. The two-cycle engine is the simplest because there are no valves in connection with the cylinder, as the gas is introduced into that member and expelled from it through ports cored into the cylinder walls. These are covered by the piston at a certain portion of its travel and uncovered at other parts of its stroke. In the four-cycle engine the explosive gas is admitted to the cylinder through a port at the head end closed by a valve, while the exhaust gas is expelled through another port controlled in a similar manner. These valves are operated by mechanism distinct from the piston.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 5.--Outlining First Two Strokes of Piston in Four-Cycle Engine.]
The action of the four-cycle type may be easily understood if one refers to ill.u.s.trations at Figs. 5 and 6. It is called the "four-stroke engine"
because the piston must make four strokes in the cylinder for each explosion or power impulse obtained. The principle of the gas-engine of the internal combustion type is similar to that of a gun, i.e., power is obtained by the rapid combustion of some explosive or other quick burning substance. The bullet is driven out of the gun barrel by the pressure of the gas evolved when the charge of powder is ignited. The piston or movable element of the gas-engine is driven from the closed or head end to the crank end of the cylinder by a similar expansion of gases resulting from combustion. The first operation in firing a gun or securing an explosion in the cylinder of the gas-engine is to fill the combustion s.p.a.ce with combustible material. This is done by a down stroke of the piston during which time the inlet valve opens to admit the gaseous charge to the cylinder interior. This operation is shown at Fig. 5, A. The second operation is to compress this gas which is done by an upward stroke of the piston as shown at Fig. 5, B. When the top of the compression stroke is reached, the gas is ignited and the piston is driven down toward the open end of the cylinder, as indicated at Fig. 6, C. The fourth operation or exhaust stroke is performed by the return upward movement of the piston as shown at Fig. 6, D during which time the exhaust valve is opened to permit the burnt gases to leave the cylinder. As soon as the piston reaches the top of its exhaust stroke, the energy stored in the fly-wheel rim during the power stroke causes that member to continue revolving and as the piston again travels on its down stroke the inlet valve opens and admits a charge of fresh gas and the cycle of operations is repeated.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 6.--Outlining Second Two Strokes of Piston in Four-Cycle Engine.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 7.--Sectional View of L Head Gasoline Engine Cylinder Showing Piston Movements During Four-Stroke Cycle.]
The ill.u.s.trations at Fig. 7 show how the various cycle functions take place in an L head type water cooled cylinder engine. The sections at A and C are taken through the inlet valve, those at B and D are taken through the exhaust valve.
The two-cycle engine works on a different principle, as while only the combustion chamber end of the piston is employed to do useful work in the four-cycle engine, both upper and lower portions are called upon to perform the functions necessary to two-cycle engine operation. Instead of the gas being admitted into the cylinder as is the case with the four-stroke engine, it is first drawn into the engine base where it receives a preliminary compression prior to its transfer to the working end of the cylinder. The views at Fig. 8 should indicate clearly the operation of the two-port two-cycle engine. At A the piston is seen reaching the top of its stroke and the gas above the piston is being compressed ready for ignition, while the suction in the engine base causes the automatic valve to open and admits mixture from the carburetor to the crank case. When the piston reaches the top of its stroke, the compressed gas is ignited and the piston is driven down on the power stroke, compressing the gas in the engine base.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 8.--Showing Two-port, Two-cycle Engine Operation.]
When the top of the piston uncovers the exhaust port the flaming gas escapes because of its pressure. A downward movement of the piston uncovers the inlet port opposite the exhaust and permits the fresh gas to bypa.s.s through the transfer pa.s.sage from the engine base to the cylinder. The conditions with the intake and exhaust port fully opened are clearly shown at Fig. 8, C. The deflector plate on the top of the piston directs the entering fresh gas to the top of the cylinder and prevents the main portion of the gas stream from flowing out through the open exhaust port. On the next upstroke of the piston the gas in the cylinder is compressed and the inlet valve opened, as shown at A to permit a fresh charge to enter the engine base.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 9.--Defining Three-port, Two-cycle Engine Action.]
The operating principle of the three-port, two-cycle engine is practically the same as that previously described with the exception that the gas is admitted to the crank-case through a third port in the cylinder wall, which is uncovered by the piston when that member reaches the end of its upstroke. The action of the three-port form can be readily ascertained by studying the diagrams given at Fig. 9.
Combination two- and three-port engines have been evolved and other modifications made to improve the action.
THE TWO-CYCLE AND FOUR-CYCLE TYPES
In the earlier years of explosive-motor progress was evolved the two types of motors in regard to the cycles of their operation. The early attempts to perfect the two-cycle principle were for many years held in abeyance from the pressure of interests in the four-cycle type, until its simplicity and power possibilities were demonstrated by Mr. Dugald Clerk in England, who gave the principles of the two-cycle motor a broad bearing leading to immediate improvements in design, which has made further progress in the United States, until at the present time it has an equal standard value as a motor-power in some applications as its ancient rival the four-cycle or Otto type, as demonstrated by Beau de Rocha in 1862.
Thermodynamically, the methods of the two types are equal as far as combustion is concerned, and compression may favor in a small degree the four-cycle type as well as the purity of the charge. The cylinder volume of the two-cycle motor is much smaller per unit of power, and the enveloping cylinder surface is therefore greater per unit of volume.
Hence more heat is carried off by the jacket water during compression, and the higher compression available from this tends to increase the economy during compression which is lost during expansion.
From the above considerations it may be safely stated that a _lower_ temperature and higher pressure of charge at the beginning of compression is obtained in the two-cycle motor, greater weight of charge and greater specific power of higher compression resulting in higher thermal efficiency. The smaller cylinder for the same power of the two-cycle motor gives less friction surface per impulse than of the other type; although the crank-chamber pressure may, in a measure, balance the friction of the four-cycle type. Probably the strongest points in favor of the two-cycle type are the lighter fly-wheel and the absence of valves and valve gear, making this type the most simple in construction and the lightest in weight for its developed power. Yet, for the larger power units, the four-cycle type will no doubt always maintain the standard for efficiency and durability of action.
The distribution of the charge and its degree of mixture with the remains of the previous explosion in the clearance s.p.a.ce, has been a matter of discussion for both types of explosive motors, with doubtful results. In Fig. 10, A we ill.u.s.trate what theory suggests as to the distribution of the fresh charge in a two-cycle motor, and in Fig. 10, B what is the probable distribution of the mixture when the piston starts on its compressive stroke. The arrows show the probable direction of flow of the fresh charge and burnt gases at the crucial moment.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 10.--Diagrams Contrasting Action of Two- and Four-Cycle Cylinders on Exhaust and Intake Stroke.]
In Fig. 10, C is shown the complete out-sweep of the products of combustion for the full extent of the piston stroke of a four-cycle motor, leaving only the volume of the clearance to mix with the new charge and at D the manner by which the new charge sweeps by the ignition device, keeping it cool and avoiding possibilities of pre-ignition by undue heating of the terminals of the sparking device.
Thus, by enveloping the sparking device with the pure mixture, ignition spreads through the charge with its greatest possible velocity, a most desirable condition in high-speed motors with side-valve chambers and igniters within the valve chamber.
THEORY OF THE GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE
The laws controlling the elements that create a power by their expansion by heat due to combustion, when properly understood, become a matter of computation in regard to their value as an agent for generating power in the various kinds of explosive engines. The method of heating the elements of power in explosive engines greatly widens the limits of temperature as available in other types of heat-engines. It disposes of many of the practical troubles of hot-air, and even of steam-engines, in the simplicity and directness of application of the elements of power.
In the explosive engine the difficulty of conveying heat for producing expansive effect by convection is displaced by the generation of the required heat within the expansive element and at the instant of its useful work. The low conductivity of heat to and from air has been the great obstacle in the practical development of the hot-air engine; while, on the contrary, it has become the source of economy and practicability in the development of the internal-combustion engine.
The action of air, gas, and the vapors of gasoline and petroleum oil, whether singly or mixed, is affected by changes of temperature practically in nearly the same ratio; but when the elements that produce combustion are interchanged in confined s.p.a.ces, there is a marked difference of effect. The oxygen of the air, the hydrogen and carbon of a gas, or vapor of gasoline or petroleum oil are the elements that by combustion produce heat to expand the nitrogen of the air and the watery vapor produced by the union of the oxygen in the air and the hydrogen in the gas, as well as also the monoxide and carbonic-acid gas that may be formed by the union of the carbon of gas or vapor with part of the oxygen of the air. The various mixtures as between air and gas, or air and vapor, with the proportion of the products of combustion left in the cylinder from a previous combustion, form the elements to be considered in estimating the amount of pressure that may be obtained by their combustion and expansive force.
EARLY GAS ENGINE FORMS
The working process of the explosive motor may be divided into three princ.i.p.al types: 1. Motors with charges igniting at constant volume without compression, such as the Lenoir, Hugon, and other similar types now abandoned as wasteful in fuel and effect. 2. Motors with charges igniting at constant pressure with compression, in which a receiver is charged by a pump and the gases burned while being admitted to the motor cylinder, such as types of the Simon and Brayton engine. 3. Motors with charges igniting at constant volume with variable compression, such as the later two- and four-cycle motors with compression of the indrawn charge; limited in the two-cycle type and variable in the four-cycle type with the ratios of the clearance s.p.a.ce in the cylinder. This principle produces the explosive motor of greatest efficiency.