The only adjustment is for idling, and once that is fixed it need never be touched. This is in the form of a screw and regulates the position of the throttle when at idling position. The dash control has high-speed, normal and rich-starting positions. In installing the Master carburetor the float chamber may be turned either toward the radiator or driver"s seat. If the float is turned toward the radiator, however, a forward lug plate should be ordered; otherwise it will be difficult to install the control. The throttle lever must go all the way to the stop lug or maximum power will not be secured. In adjusting the idle screw it is turned in for rich and out for lean.
COMPOUND NOZZLE ZENITH CARBURETOR
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 51.--Sectional View of Zenith Compound Nozzle Compensating Carburetor.]
The Zenith carburetor, shown at Fig. 51, has become very popular for airplane engine use because of its simplicity, as mixture compensation is secured by a compensating compound nozzle principle that works very well in practice. To ill.u.s.trate this principle briefly, let us consider the elementary type of carburetor or mixing valve, as shown in Fig. 52, A. It consists of a single jet or spraying nozzle placed in the path of the incoming air and fed from the usual float chamber. It is a natural inference to suppose that as the speed of the motor increases, both the flow of air and of gasoline will increase in the same proportion.
Unhappily, such is not the case. There is a law of liquid bodies which states that the flow of gasoline from the jet increases under suction faster than the flow of air, giving a mixture which grows richer and richer--a mixture containing a much higher percentage of gasoline at high suction than at low. The tendency is shown by the accompanying curve (Fig. 52, B), which gives the ratio of gasoline to air at varying speeds from this type of jet. The mixture is practically constant only between narrow limits and at very high speed. The most common method of correcting this defect is by putting various auxiliary air valves which, adding air, tends to dilute this mixture as it gets too rich. It is difficult with makeshift devices to gauge this dilution accurately for every motor speed.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 52.--Diagrams Explaining Action of Baverey Compound Nozzle Used in Zenith Carburetor.]
Now, if we have a jet which grows richer as the suction increases, the opposite type of jet is one which would grow leaner under similar conditions. Baverey, the inventor of the Zenith, discovered the principle of the constant flow device which is shown in Fig. 52, C. Here a certain fixed amount of gasoline determined by the opening I is permitted to flow by gravity into the well J open to the air. The suction at jet H has no effect upon the gravity compensator I because the suction is destroyed by the open well J. The compensator, then, delivers a steady rate of flow per unit of time, and as the motor suction increases more air is drawn up, while the amount of gasoline remains the same and the mixture grows poorer and poorer. Fig. 52, D, shows this curve.
By combining these two types of rich and poor mixture carburetors the Zenith compound nozzle was evolved. In Fig. 52, E, we have both the direct suction or richer type leading through pipe E and nozzle G and the "constant flow" device of Baverey shown at J, I, K and nozzle H. One counteracts the defects of the other, so that from the cranking of the motor to its highest speed there is a constant ratio of air and gasoline to supply efficient combustion.
In addition to the compound nozzle the Zenith is equipped with a starting and idling well, shown in the cut of Model L carburetor at P and J. This terminates in a priming hole at the edge of the b.u.t.terfly valve, where the suction is greatest when this valve is slightly open.
The gasoline is drawn up by the suction at the priming hole and, mixed with the air rushing by the b.u.t.terfly, gives an ideal slow speed mixture. At higher speeds with the b.u.t.terfly valve opened further the priming well ceases to operate and the compound nozzle drains the well and compensates correctly for any motor speed.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 53.--The Zenith Duplex Carburetor for Airplane Motors of the V Type.]
With the coming of the double motor containing eight or twelve cylinders arranged in two V blocks, the question of good carburetion has been a problem requiring much study. The single carburetor has given only indifferent results due to the strong cross suction in the inlet manifold from one set of cylinders to the other. This naturally led to the adoption of two carburetors in which each set of cylinders was independently fed by a separate carburetor. Results from this system were very good when the two carburetors were working exactly in unison, but as it was extremely difficult to accomplish this co-operation, especially where the adjustable type was employed, this system never gained in favor. The next logical step was the Zenith Duplex, shown at Fig. 53. This consists of two separate and distinct carburetors joined together so that a common gasoline float chamber and air inlet could be used by both. It does away with cross suction in the manifold because each set of cylinders has a separate intake of its own. It does away with two carburetors and makes for simplicity. The practical application of the Zenith carburetor to the Curtiss 90 horse-power OX-2 motor used on the JN-4 standard training machine is shown at Fig. 54, which outlines a rear view of the engine in question. The carburetor is carried low to permit of fuel supply from a gravity tank carried back of the motor.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 54.--Rear View of Curtiss OX-2 90 Horse-Power Airplane Motor Showing Carburetor Location and Hot Air Leads.]
UTILITY OF GASOLINE STRAINERS
Many carburetors include a filtering screen at the point where the liquid enters the float chamber in order to keep dirt or any other foreign matter which may be present in the fuel from entering the float chamber. This is not general practice, however, and the majority of vaporizers do not include a filter in their construction. It is very desirable that the dirt should be kept out of the carburetor because it may get under the float control fuel valve and cause flooding by keeping it raised from its seat. If it finds its way into the spray nozzle it may block the opening so that no gasoline will issue or may so constrict the pa.s.sage that only very small quant.i.ties of fuel will be supplied the mixture. Where the carburetor itself is not provided with a filtering screen a simple filter is usually installed in the pipe line between the gasoline tank and the float chamber.
Some simple forms of filters and separators are shown at Fig. 55. That at A consists of a simple bra.s.s casting having a readily detachable gauze screen and a settling chamber of sufficient capacity to allow the foreign matter to settle to the bottom, from which it is drained out by a pet c.o.c.k. Any water or dirt in the gasoline will settle to the bottom of the chamber, and as all fuel delivered to the carburetor must pa.s.s through the wire gauze screen it is not likely to contain impurities when it reaches the float chamber. The heavier particles, such as scale from the tank or dirt and even water, all of which have greater weight than the gasoline, will sink to the bottom of the chamber, whereas light particles, such as lint, will be prevented from flowing into the carburetor by the filtering screen.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 55.--Types of Strainers Interposed Between Vaporizer and Gasoline Tank to Prevent Water or Dirt Pa.s.sing Into Carbureting Device.]
The filtering device shown at B is a larger appliance than that shown at A, and should be more efficient as a separator because the gasoline is forced to pa.s.s through three filtering screens before it reaches the carburetor. The gasoline enters the device shown at C through a bent pipe which leads directly to the settling chamber and from thence through a wire gauze screen to the upper compartment which leads to the carburetor. The device shown at D is a combination strainer, drain, and sediment cup. The filtering screen is held in place by a spring and both are removed by taking out a plug at the bottom of the device. The shut-off valve at the top of the device is interposed between the sediment cup and the carburetor. This separating device is incorporated with the gasoline tank and forms an integral part of the gasoline supply system. The other types shown are designed to be interposed between the gasoline tank and the carburetor at any point in the pipe line where they may be conveniently placed.
INTAKE MANIFOLD DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
On four- and six-cylinder engines and in fact on all multiple-cylinder forms, it is important that the piping leading from the carburetor to the cylinders be made in such a way that the various cylinders will receive their full quota of gas and that each cylinder will receive its charge at about the same point in the cycle of operations. In order to make the pa.s.sages direct the bends should be as few as possible, and when curves are necessary they should be of large radius because an abrupt corner will not only impede gas flow but will tend to promote condensation of the fuel. Every precaution should be taken with four- and six-cylinder engines to insure equitable gas distribution to the valve chambers if regular action of the power plant is desired. If the gas pipe has many turns and angles it will be difficult to charge all cylinders properly. On some six-cylinder aviation engines, two carburetors are used because of trouble experienced with manifolds designed for one carburetor. Duplex carburetors are necessary to secure the best results from eight- and twelve-cylinder V engines.
The problem of intake piping is simplified to some extent on block motors where the intake pa.s.sage is cored in the cylinder casting and where but one short pipe is needed to join this pa.s.sage to the carburetor. If the cylinders are cast in pairs a simple pipe of T or Y form can be used with success. When the engine is of a type using individual cylinder castings, especially in the six-cylinder power plants, the proper application and installation of suitable piping is a difficult problem. The reader is referred to the various engine designs outlined to ascertain how the inlet piping has been arranged on representative aviation engines. Intake piping is constructed in two ways, the most common method being to cast the manifold of bra.s.s or aluminum. The other method, which is more costly, is to use a built-up construction of copper or bra.s.s tubing with cast metal elbows and Y pieces. One of the disadvantages advanced against the cast manifold is that blowholes may exist which produce imperfect castings and which will cause mixture troubles because the entering gas from the carburetor, which may be of proper proportions, is diluted by the excess air which leaks in through the porous casting. Another factor of some moment is that the roughness of the walls has a certain amount of friction which tends to reduce the velocity of the gases, and when projecting pieces are present, such as core wire or other points of metal, these tend to collect the drops of liquid fuel and thus promote condensation. The advantage of the built-up construction is that the walls of the tubing are very smooth, and as the castings are small it is not difficult to clean them out thoroughly before they are incorporated in the manifold.
The tubing and castings are joined together by hard soldering, brazing or autogenous welding.
COMPENSATING FOR VARYING ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
The low-grade gasoline used at the present time makes it necessary to use vaporizers that are more susceptible to atmospheric variations than when higher grade and more volatile liquids are vaporized. Sudden temperature changes, sometimes being as much as forty degrees rise or fall in twelve hours, affect the mixture proportions to some extent, and not only changes in temperature but variations in alt.i.tude also have a bearing on mixture proportions by affecting both gasoline and air. As the temperature falls the specific gravity of the gasoline increases and it becomes heavier, this producing difficulty in vaporizing. The tendency of very cold air is to condense gasoline instead of vaporizing it and therefore it is necessary to supply heated air to some carburetors to obtain proper mixtures during cold weather. In order that the gas mixtures will ignite properly the fuel must be vaporized and thoroughly mixed with the entering air either by heat or high velocity of the gases. The application of air stoves to the Curtiss OX-2 motor is clearly shown at Fig. 54. It will be seen that flexible metal pipes are used to convey the heated air to the air intakes of the duplex mixing chamber.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 56.--Chart Showing Diminution of Air Pressure as Alt.i.tude Increases.]
HOW HIGH ALt.i.tUDE AFFECTS POWER
Any internal combustion engine will show less power at high alt.i.tudes than it will deliver at sea level, and this has caused a great deal of questioning. "There is a good reason for this," says a writer in "Motor Age," "and it is a physical impossibility for the engine to do otherwise. The difference is due to the lower atmospheric pressure the higher up we get. That is, at sea level the atmosphere has a pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch; at 5,000 feet above sea level the pressure is approximately 12.13 pounds per square inch, and at 10,000 feet it is 10 pounds per square inch. From this it will be seen that the final pressure attained after the piston has driven the gas into compressed condition ready for firing is lower as the atmospheric pressure drops.
This means that there is not so much power in the compressed charge of gas the higher up you get above sea level.
"For example, suppose the compression ratio to be 4-1/2 to 1; in other words, suppose the air s.p.a.ce above the piston to have 4-1/2 times the volume when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke that it has when the piston is at the top of the stroke. That is a common compression ratio for an average motor, and is chosen because it is considered to be the best for maximum horse-power and in order that the compression pressure will not be so high as to cause pre-ignition. Knowing the compression ratio, we can determine the final pressure immediately before ignition by subst.i.tuting in the standard formula:
P^{1} = P(V/V^{1})^{1.3}
in which P is the atmospheric pressure; P^{1} is the final pressure, and V/V^{1} is the compression ratio, therefore P^{1} = 14.7 (4.5)^{1.3} = 104 pounds per square inch, absolute.
"That is, 104 pounds per square inch is the most efficient final compression pressure to have for this engine at sea level, since it comes directly from the compression ratio.
"Now supposing we consider that the alt.i.tude is 7,000 feet above sea level. At this height the atmospheric pressure is 11.25 pounds per square inch, approximately. In this case we can again subst.i.tute in the formula, using the new atmospheric pressure figure. The equation becomes:
P^{1} = 11.25 (4.5)^{1.3}--79.4 pounds per square inch, absolute.
"Therefore we now have a final compression pressure of only 79.4 pounds per square inch, which is considerably below the pressure we have just found to be the most efficient for the motor. The resulting power drop is evident.
"It should be borne in mind that these final compression pressures are absolute pressures--that is, they include the atmospheric pressure. In the first case, to get the pressure above atmospheric you would subtract 14.7 and in the latter 11.25 would have to be deducted. In other words, where the sea level compression is 89.3 pounds per square inch above the atmosphere, the same motor will have only a compression pressure of 68.15 pounds per square inch above the atmosphere at 7,000 feet elevation.
"From the above it is evident that in order to bring the final compression pressure up to the efficient figure we have determined, a different compression ratio would have to be used. That is, the final volume would have to be less, and as it is impossible to vary this to meet the conditions of alt.i.tude, the loss of power cannot be helped except by the replacing of the standard pistons with some that are longer above the wrist-pin so as to reduce the s.p.a.ce above the pistons when on top center. Then if the ratio is thereby raised to some such figures as 5 to 1, the engine will again have its proper final pressure, but it will still not have as much power as it would have at sea level, since the horse-power varies directly with the atmospheric pressure, final compression being kept constant. That is, at 7,000 feet the horse-power of an engine that had 40 horse-power at sea level would be equal to
11.25 ------- = 30.6 horse-power.
14.7
"If the original compression ratio of 4.5 were retained, the drop in horse-power would be even greater than this. These computations and remarks will make it clear that the designer who contemplates building an airplane for high alt.i.tude use should see to it that it is of sufficient power to compensate for the drop that is inevitable when it is up in the air. This is often ill.u.s.trated in stationary gas-engine installations. An engine that had a sea-level rating amply sufficient for the work required, might not be powerful enough when brought up several thousand feet." When one considers that airplanes attain heights of over 18,000 feet, it will be evident that an ample margin of engine power is necessary.
THE DIESEL SYSTEM
A system of fuel supply developed by the late Dr. Diesel, a German chemist and engineer, is attracting considerable attention at the present time on account of the ability of the Diesel engine to burn low-grade fuels, such as crude petroleum. In this system the engines are built so that very high compressions are used, and only pure air is taken into the cylinder on the induction stroke. This is compressed to a pressure of about 500 pounds per square inch, and sufficient heat is produced by this compression to explode a hydrocarbon mixture. As the air which is compressed to this high point cannot burn, the fuel is introduced into the cylinder combustion chamber under still higher compression than that of the compressed air, and as it is injected in a fine stream it is immediately vaporized because of the heat. Just as soon as the compressed air becomes thoroughly saturated with the liquid fuel, it will explode on account of the degree of heat present in the combustion chamber. Such motors have been used in marine and stationary applications, but are not practical for airplanes or motor cars because of lack of flexibility and great weight in proportion to power developed. The Diesel engine is the standard power plant used in submarine boats and motor ships, as its efficiency renders it particularly well adapted for large units.
NOTES ON CARBURETOR INSTALLATION IN AIRPLANES
A writer in "The Aeroplane," an English publication, discourses on some features of carburetor installation that may be of interest to the aviation student, so portions of the dissertation are reproduced herewith.
"Users of airplanes fitted with ordinary type carburetors will do well to note carefully the way in which these are fitted, for several costly machines have been burnt lately through the sheer carelessness of their users. These particular machines were fitted with a high powered V-type engine, made by a firm which is famous as manufacturers of automobiles _de luxe_. In these engines there are four carburetors, mounted in the V between the cylinders. When the engine is fitted as a tractor, the float chambers are in front of the jet chambers. Consequently, when the tail of the machine is resting on the ground, the jets are lower than the level of the gasoline in the float chamber.
"Quite naturally, the gasoline runs out of the jet, if it is left turned on when the machine is standing in its normal position, and trickles into the V at the top of the crank-case.
Thence it runs down to the tail of the engine, where the magnetos are fitted, and saturates them. If left long enough, the gasoline manages to soak well into the fuselage before evaporating. And what does evaporate makes an inflammable gas in the forward c.o.c.kpit. Then some one comes along and starts up the engine. The spark-gap of the magneto gives one flash, and the whole front of the machine proceeds to give a Fourth of July performance forthwith. Naturally, one safeguard is to turn the petrol off directly the machine lands. Another is never to turn it on till the engine is actually being started up.
"One would be asking too much of the human boy--who is officially regarded as the only person fit to fly an aeroplane--if one depended upon his memory of such a detail to save his machine, though one might perhaps reasonably expect the older pilots to remember not to forget. Even so, other means of prevention are preferable, for fire is quite as likely to occur from just the same cause if the engine happens to be a trifle obstinate in starting, and so gives the carburetors several minutes in which to drip--in which operation they would probably be a.s.sisted by air-mechanics "tickling" them.
"One way out of the trouble is to fit drip tins under the jet chamber to catch the gasoline as it falls. This is all very well just to prevent fire while the machine is being started up, but it will not save it if it is left standing with the tail on the ground and the petrol turned on, for the drip tins will then fill up and run over. And if it catches then, the contents of the drip tins merely add fuel to the fire.