ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM CLOSELY RELATED
There are many points in which magnetism and electricity are alike. For instance, air is a medium that offers considerable resistance to the pa.s.sage of both magnetic influence and electric energy, although it offers more resistance to the pa.s.sage of the latter. Minerals like iron or steel are very easily influenced by magnetism and easily penetrated by it. When one of these is present in the magnetic circuit the magnetism will flow through the metal. Any metal is a good conductor for the pa.s.sage of the electric current, but few metals are good conductors of magnetic energy. A body of the proper metal will become a magnet due to induction if placed in the magnetic field, having a south pole where the lines of force enter it and a north pole where they pa.s.s out.
We have seen that a magnet is constantly surrounded by a magnetic field and that an electrical conductor when carrying a current is also surrounded by a field of magnetic influence. Now if the conductor carrying a current of electricity will induce magnetism in a bar of iron or steel, by a reversal of this process, a magnetized iron or steel bar will produce a current of electricity in a conductor. It is upon this principle that the modern dynamo or magneto is constructed. If an electro-motive force is induced in a conductor by moving it across a field of magnetic influence, or by pa.s.sing a magnetic field near a conductor, electricity is said to be generated by magneto-electric induction. All mechanical generators of the electric current using permanent steel magnets to produce a field of magnetic influence are of this type.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETO OUTLINED
The accompanying diagram, Fig. 58, will show these principles very clearly. As stated on an earlier page, if the lines of force in the magnetic field are cut by a suitable conductor an electrical impulse will be produced in that conductor. In this simple machine the lines of force exist between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. The conductor, which in this case is a loop of copper wire, is mounted upon a spindle in order that it may be rotated in the magnetic field to cut the lines of magnetic influence present between the pole pieces. Both of the ends of this loop are connected, one with the insulated drum shown upon the shaft, the other to the shaft. Two metal brushes are employed to collect the current and cause it to flow through the external circuit. It can be seen that when the shaft is turned in the direction of the arrow the loop will cut through the lines of magnetic influence and a current will be generated therein.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 58.--Elementary Form of Magneto Showing Princ.i.p.al Parts Simplified to Make Method of Current Generation Clear.]
The pressure of the current and the amount produced vary in accordance to the rapidity with which the lines of magnetic influence are cut. The armature of a practical magneto, therefore, differs materially from that shown in the diagram. A large number of loops of wire would be mounted upon this shaft in order that the lines of magnetic influence would be cut a greater number of times in a given period and a core of iron used as a backing for the wire. This would give a more rapid alternating current and a higher electro-motive force than would be the case with a smaller number of loops of wire.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 59.--Showing How Strength of Magnetic Influence and of the Currents Induced in the Windings of Armature Vary with the Rapidity of Changes of Flow.]
The ill.u.s.trations at Fig. 59 show a conventional double winding armature and field magnetic of a practical magneto in part section and will serve to more fully emphasize the points previously made. If the armature or spindle were removed from between the pole pieces there would exist a field of magnetic influence as shown at Fig. 57, but the introduction of this component provides a conductor (the iron core) for the magnetic energy, regardless of its position, though the facility with which the influence will be transmitted depends entirely upon the position of the core. As shown at A, the magnetic flow is through the main body in a straight line, while at B, which position the armature has attained after one-eighth revolution, or 45 degrees travel in the direction of the arrow, the magnetism must pa.s.s through in the manner indicated. At C, which position is attained every half revolution, the magnetic energy abandons the longer path through the body of the core for the shorter pa.s.sage offered by the side pieces, and the field thrown out by the cross bar disappears. On further rotation of the armature, as at D, the body of the core again becomes energized as the magnetic influence resumes its flow through it. These changes in the strength of the magnetic field when distorted by the armature core, as well as the intensity of the energy existing in the field, affect the windings, and the electrical energy induced therein corresponds in strength to the rapidity with which these changes in magnetic flow occur. The most p.r.o.nounced changes in the strength of the field will occur as the armature pa.s.ses from position B to D, because the magnetic field existing around the core will be destroyed and again re-established.
During the most of the armature rotation the changes in strength will be slight and the currents induced in the wire correspondingly small; but at the instant the core becomes remagnetized, as the armature leaves position C, the current produced will be at its maximum, and it is necessary to so time the rotation of the armature that at this instant one of the cylinders is in condition to be fired. It is imperative that the armature be driven in such relation to the crank-shaft that each production of maximum current coincides with the ignition point, this condition existing twice during each revolution of the armature, or at every 180 degrees travel. Each position shown corresponds to 45 degrees travel of the armature, or one-eighth of a turn, and it takes just three-eighths revolution to change the position from A to that shown at D.
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A MAGNETO AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
The magnets which produce the influence that in turn induces the electrical energy in the winding or loops of wire on the armature, and which may have any even number of opposed poles, are called field magnets. The loops of wire which are mounted upon a suitable drum and rotate in the field of magnetic influence in order to cut the lines of force is called an armature winding, while the core is the metal portion. The entire a.s.sembly is called the armature. The exposed ends of the magnets are called pole pieces and the arrangement used to collect the current is either a commutator or a collector. The stationary pieces which bear against the collector or commutator and act as terminals for the outside circuit are called brushes. These brushes are often of copper, or some of its alloys, because copper has a greater electrical conductivity than any other metal.
These brushes are nearly always of carbon, which is sometimes electroplated with copper to increase its electrical conductivity, though cylinders of copper wire gauze impregnated with graphite are utilized at times. Carbon is used because it is not so liable to cut the metal of the commutator as might be the case if the contact was of the metal to metal type. The reason for this is that carbon has the peculiar property in that it materially a.s.sists in the lubrication of the commutator, and being of soft, unctuous composition, will wear and conform to any irregularities on the surface of the metal collector rings.
The magneto in common use consists of a number of horseshoe magnets which are compound in form and attached to suitable cast-iron pole pieces used to collect and concentrate the magnetic influence of the various magnets. Between these pole pieces an armature rotates. This is usually shaped like a shuttle, around which are wound coils of insulated wire. These are composed of a large number of turns and the current produced depends in great measure upon the size of the wire and the number of turns per coil. An armature winding of large wire will deliver a current of great amperage, but of small voltage. An armature wound with very fine wire will deliver a current of high voltage but of low amperage. In the ordinary form of magneto, such as used for ignition, the current is alternating in character and the break in the circuit should be timed to occur when the armature is at the point of its greatest potential or pressure. Where such a generator is designed for direct current production the ends of the winding are attached to the segments of a commutator, but where the instrument is designed to deliver an alternating current one end of the winding is fastened to an insulator ring on one end of the armature shaft and the other end is grounded on the frame of the machine.
The quant.i.ty of the current depends upon the strength of the magnetic field and the number of lines of magnetic influence acting through the armature. The electro-motive force varies as to the length of the armature winding and the number of revolutions at which the armature is rotated.
THE TRANSFORMER SYSTEM USES LOW VOLTAGE MAGNETO
The magneto in the various systems which employ a transformer coil is very similar to a low-tension generator in general construction, and the current delivered at the terminals seldom exceeds 100 volts. As it requires many times that potential or pressure to leap the gap which exists between the points of the conventional spark plug, a separate coil is placed in circuit to intensify the current to one of greater capacity. The essential parts of such a system and their relation to each other are shown in diagrammatic form at Fig. 60 and as a complete system at Fig. 61. As is true of other systems the magnetic influence is produced by permanent steel magnets clamped to the cast-iron pole pieces between which the armature rotates. At the point of greatest potential in the armature winding the current is broken by the contact breaker, which is actuated by a cam, and a current of higher value is induced in the secondary winding of the transformer coil when the low voltage current is pa.s.sed through the primary winding.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 60.--Diagrams Explaining Action of Low Tension Transformer Coil and True High Tension Magneto Ignition Systems.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 60A.--Side Sectional View of Bosch High-Tension Magneto Shows Disposition of Parts. End Elevation Depicts Arrangement of Interruptor and Distributor Mechanism.]
It will be noted that the points of the contact breaker are together except for the brief instant when separated by the action of the point of the cam upon the lever. It is obvious that the armature winding is short-circuited upon itself except when the contact points are separated. While the armature winding is thus short-circuited there will be practically no generation of current. When the points are separated there is a sudden flow of current through the primary winding of the transformer coil, inducing a secondary current in the other winding, which can be varied in strength by certain considerations in the preliminary design of the apparatus. This current of higher potential or voltage is conducted directly to the plug if the device is fitted to a single-cylinder engine, or to the distributor arm if fitted to a multiple-cylinder motor. The distributor consists of an insulator in which is placed a number of segments, one for each cylinder to be fired, and so s.p.a.ced that the number of degrees between them correspond to the ignition points of the motor. A two-cylinder motor would have two segments, a three-cylinder, three segments, and so on within the capacity of the instrument. In the ill.u.s.tration a four-cylinder distributor is fitted, and the distributing arm is in contact with the segment corresponding to the cylinder about to be fired.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 61.--Berling Two-Spark Dual Ignition System.]
TRUE HIGH-TENSION MAGNETOS ARE SELF-CONTAINED
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 62.--Berling Double-Spark Independent System.]
The true high-tension magneto differs from the preceding inasmuch as the current of high voltage is produced in the armature winding direct, without the use of the separate coil. Instead of but one coil, the armature carries two, one of comparatively coa.r.s.e wire, the other of many turns of finer wire. The arrangement of these windings can be readily ascertained by reference to the diagram B, Fig. 60, which shows the principle of operation very clearly. The simplicity of the ignition system is evident by inspection of Fig. 62. One end of the primary winding (coa.r.s.e wire) is coupled or grounded to the armature core, and the other pa.s.ses to the insulated part of the interrupter. While in some forms the interrupter or contact breaker mechanism does not revolve, the desired motion being imparted to the contact lever to separate the points of a revolving cam, in this the cam or tripping mechanism is stationary and the contact breaker revolves. This arrangement makes it possible to conduct the current from the revolving primary coil to the interrupter by a direct connection, eliminating the use of brushes, which would otherwise be necessary. In other forms of this appliance where the winding is stationary, the interrupter may be operated by a revolving cam, though, if desired, the used of a brush at this point will permit this construction with a revolving winding.
During the revolution of the armature the grounded lever makes and breaks contact with the insulated point, short-circuiting the primary winding upon itself until the armature reaches the proper position of maximum intensity of current production, at which time the circuit is broken, as in the former instance. One end of the secondary winding (fine wire) is grounded on the live end of the primary, the other end being attached to the revolving arm of the distributor mechanism. So long as a closed circuit is maintained feeble currents will pa.s.s through the primary winding, and so long as the contact points are together this condition will exist. When the current reaches its maximum value, because of the armature being in the best position, the cam operates the interrupter and the points are separated, breaking the short circuit which has existed in the primary winding.
The secondary circuit has been open while the distributor arm has moved from one contact to another and there has been no flow of energy through this winding. While the electrical pressure will rise in this, even if the distributor arm contacted with one of the segments, there would be no spark at the plug until the contact points separated, because the current in the secondary winding would not be of sufficient strength.
When the interrupter operates, however, the maximum primary current will be diverted from its short circuit and can flow to the ground only through the secondary winding and spark-plug circuit. The high pressure now existing in the secondary winding will be greatly increased by the sudden flow of primary current, and energy of high enough potential to successfully bridge the gap at the plug is thereby produced in the winding.
THE BERLING MAGNETO
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 63.--Type DD Berling High Tension Magneto.]
The Berling magneto is a true high tension type delivering two impulses per revolution, but it is made in a variety of forms, both single and double spark. Its principle of action does not differ in essentials from the high tension type previously described. This magneto is used on Curtiss aviation engines and will deliver sparks in a positive manner sufficient to insure ignition of engines up to 200 horse-power and at rotative speeds of the magneto armature up to 4,000 r. p. m. which is sufficient to take care of an eight-cylinder V engine running up to 2,000 r. p. m. The magneto is driven at crank-shaft speed on four-cylinder engines, at 1-1/2 times crank-shaft speed on six-cylinder engines and at twice crank-shaft speed on eight-cylinder V types. The types "D" and "DD" BERLING Magnetos are interchangeable with corresponding magnetos of other standard makes. The dimensions of the four-, six- and eight-cylinder types "D" and "DD" are all the same.
The ideal method of driving the magneto is by means of flexible direct connecting coupling to a shaft intended for the purpose of driving the magneto. As the magneto must be driven at a high speed, a coupling of some flexibility is preferable. The employment of such a coupling will facilitate the mounting of the magneto, because a small inaccuracy in the lining up of the magneto with the driving shaft will be taken care of by the flexible coupling, whereas with a perfectly rigid coupling the line-up of the magneto must be absolutely accurate. Another advantage of the flexible coupling is that the vibration of the motor will not be as fully transmitted to the armature shaft on the magneto as in case a rigid coupling is used. This means prolonged life for the magneto.
The next best method of driving the magneto is by means of a gear keyed to the armature shaft. When this method of driving is employed, great care must be exercised in providing sufficient clearance between the gear on the magneto and the driving gear. If there should be a tight spot between these two gears it will react disadvantageously on the magneto. The third available method is to drive the magneto by means of a chain. This is the least desirable of the three methods and should be resorted to only in case of absolute necessity. It is difficult to provide sufficient clearance when using a chain without rendering the timing less accurate and positive.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 64.--Wiring Diagrams of Berling Magneto Ignition Systems.]
Fig. 64, A shows diagrammatically the circuit of the "D" type two-spark independent magneto and the switch used with it. In position OFF the primary winding of the magneto is short-circuited and in this position the switch serves as an ordinary cut-out or grounding switch. In position "1" the switch connects the magneto in such a way that it operates as an ordinary single-spark magneto. In this position one end of the secondary winding is grounded to the body of the motor. This is the starting position. In this position of the switch the entire voltage generated in the magneto is concentrated at one spark-plug instead of being divided in half. With the motor turning over very slowly, as is the case in starting, the full voltage generated by the magneto will not in all cases be sufficient to bridge simultaneously two spark gaps, but is amply sufficient to bridge one. Also, this position of the switch tends to r.e.t.a.r.d the ignition and should be used in starting to prevent back-firing. With the switch in position "2" the magneto applies ignition to both plugs in each cylinder simultaneously. This is the normal running position.
Fig. 64, B shows diagrammatically the circuit of the type "DD" BERLING high-tension two-spark dual magneto. This type is recommended for certain types of heavy-duty airplane motors, which it is impossible to turn over fast enough to give the magneto sufficient speed to generate even a single spark of volume great enough to ignite the gas in the cylinder. The dual feature consists of the addition to the magneto of a battery interrupter. The equipment consists of the magneto, coil and special high-tension switch. The coil is intended to operate on six volts. Either a storage battery or dry cells may be used.
With the switch in the OFF position, the magneto is grounded, and the battery circuit is open. With the switch in the second or battery position marked "BAT," one end of the secondary winding of the magneto is grounded, and the magneto operates as a single-spark magneto delivering high-tension current to the inside distributor, and the battery circuit being closed the high-tension current from the coil is delivered to the outside distributor. In this position the battery current is supplied to one set of spark plugs, no matter how slowly the motor is turned over, but as soon as the motor starts, the magneto supplies current as a single-spark magneto to the other set of the spark-plugs. After the engine is running, the switch should be thrown to the position marked "MAG." The battery and coil are then disconnected, and the magneto furnishes ignition to both plugs in each cylinder. This is the normal running position. Either a non-vibrating coil type "N-1"
is furnished or a combined vibrating and non-vibrating coil type "VN-1."
SETTING BERLING MAGNETO
The magneto may be set according to one of two different methods, the selection of which is, to some extent, governed by the characteristics of the engine, but largely due to the personal preference on the part of the user. In the first method described below, the most advantageous position of the piston for fully advanced ignition is determined in relation to the extreme advanced position of the magneto. In this case, the fully r.e.t.a.r.ded ignition will not be a matter of selection, but the timing range of the magneto is wide enough to bring the fully r.e.t.a.r.ded ignition after top-center position of the piston. The second method for the setting of the magneto fixes the fully r.e.t.a.r.ded position of the magneto in relation to that position of the piston where fully r.e.t.a.r.ded ignition is desired. In this case, the extreme advance position of the magneto will not always correspond with the best position of the piston for fully advanced ignition, and the amount of advance the magneto should have to meet ideal requirements in this respect must be determined by experiment.
_First Method:_
1. Designate one cylinder as cylinder No. 1.
2. Turn the crank-shaft until the piston in cylinder No. 1 is in the position where the fully advanced spark is desired to occur.
3. Remove the cover from the distributor block and turn the armature shaft in the direction of rotation of the magneto until the distributor finger-brush comes into such a position that this brush makes contact with the segment which is connected to the cable terminal marked "1."
This is either one of the two bottom segments, depending upon the direction of rotation.
4. Place the cam housing in extreme advance, i.e., turn the cam housing until it stops, in the direction opposite to the direction of rotation of the armature. With the cam housing in this position, open the cover.
5. With the armature in the approximate position as described in "3,"
turn the armature slightly in either direction to such a point that the platinum points of the magneto interrupter will just begin to open at the end of the cam, adjacent to the fibre lever on the interrupter.
6. With this exact position of the armature, fix the magneto to the driving member of the engine.