ILl.u.s.tRIOUS MEN AND WOMEN.--It is not likely that any two persons would agree as to who are ent.i.tled to the first fifty places on the roll of great men and great women. Using "great" in the sense of eminence in their professions, of great military commanders the following are among the chief: Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, who is represented as having subdued all Asia to the Oxus and the Ganges, Ethiopia, and a part of Europe; Cyrus the Great; Alexander the Great; Hannibal; Che-Hwanti, who reduced all the kingdoms of China and Indo-China to one empire, and constructed the Great Wall; Caesar; Genghis Khan, the Tartar chief, who overran all Asia and a considerable part of Europe; Napoleon Bonaparte; Ulysses S. Grant, and General Von Moltke. Among the most ill.u.s.trious benefactors of mankind, as statesmen, lawgivers and patriots, stand Moses, David, Solon, Numa Pompilius, Zoroaster, Confucius, Justinian, Charlemagne, Cromwell, Washington and Lincoln. Eminent among the philosophers, rhetoricians and logicians stand Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Seneca, the two Catos, and Lord Bacon; among orators, Pericles, Demosthenes, Cicero, Mirabeau, Burke, Webster and Clay; among poets, Homer, Virgil, Dante, Milton, and Shakespeare; among painters and sculptors, Phidias, Parrhasius, Zenxis, Praxiteles, Scopas, Michael Angelo, Raphael and Rubens; among philanthropists, John Howard; among inventors, Archimedes, Watt, Fulton, Arkwright, Whitney and Morse; among astronomers, Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Newton, La Place and the elder Herschel. Here are sixty names of distinguished men, and yet the great religious leaders, excepting Moses and Zoroaster, have not been named. Among these stand Siddhartha or Buddha, Mahomet, Martin Luther, John Knox and John Wesley. Then the great explorers and geographers of the world have not been noticed, among whom Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny, Vasco de Gama, Columbus and Humboldt barely lead the van.
Of eminent women there are Seling, wife of the Emperor Hw.a.n.g-ti, B.
C. 2637, who taught her people the art of silk-raising and weaving; Semiramis, the a.s.syrian Queen; Deborah, the heroic warrior prophetess of the Israelites; Queen Esther, who, with the counsel of her cousin, Mordecai, not only saved the Jews from extermination, but lifted them from a condition of slavery into prosperity and power; Dido, the founder of Carthage; Sappho, the eminent Grecian poetess; Hypatia, the eloquent philosopher; Mary, the mother of Christ; Zen.o.bia, Queen of Palmyra; the mother of St. Augustine; Elizabeth of Hungary; Queen Elizabeth of England; Queen Isabella of Spain; the Empress Maria Theresa; Margaret the Great of Denmark; Catherine the Great of Russia, Queen Victoria; Florence Nightingale; Mme. de Stael: Mrs. Fry, the philanthropist; among auth.o.r.esses, Mrs. Hemans, Mrs. Sigourney, Mrs.
Browning, "George Sand," "George Eliot," and Mrs. Stowe; and among artists, Rosa Bonheur, and our own Harriet Hosmer.
THE SUEZ Ca.n.a.l.--The Suez Ca.n.a.l was begun in 1,858 and was formally opened in November, 1869. Its cost, including harbors, is estimated at $100,000,000. Its length is 100 miles, 75 of which were excavated; its width is generally 325 feet at the surface, and 75 feet at the bottom, and its depth 26 feet. The workmen employed were chiefly natives, and many were drafted by the Khedive. The number of laborers is estimated at 30,000. The British government virtually controls the ca.n.a.l as it owns most of the stock.
SENDING VESSELS OVER NIAGARA FALLS.--There have been three such instances. The first was in 1827. Some men got an old ship--the Michigan--which had been used on lake Erie, and had been p.r.o.nounced unseaworthy. For mere wantonness they put aboard a bear, a fox, a buffalo, a dog and some geese and sent it over the cataract. The bear jumped from the vessel before it reached the rapids, swam toward the sh.o.r.e, and was rescued by some humane persons. The geese went over the falls, and came to the sh.o.r.e below alive, and, therefore, became objects of great interest, and were sold at high prices to visitors at the Falls. The dog, fox, and buffalo were not heard of or seen again.
Another condemned vessel, the Detroit, that had belonged to Commodore Perry"s victorious fleet, was started over the cataract in the winter of 1841, but grounded about midway in the rapids, and lay there till knocked to pieces by the ice. A somewhat more picturesque instance was the sending over the Canada side of a ship on fire. This occurred in 1837. The vessel was the Caroline, which had been run in the interest of the insurgents in the Canadian rebellion. It was captured by Colonel McNabb, an officer of the Canada militia, and by his orders it was set on fire then cut loose from its moorings. All in flames, it went glaring and hissing down the rapids and over the precipice, and smothered its ruddy blaze in the boiling chasm below. Thia was witnessed by large crowds on both sides of the falls, and was described as a most magnificent sight. Of course there was no one on board the vessel.
OLD TIME WAGES IN ENGLAND.--The following rates of daily wages "determined" by the Justices of Somerset, in 1685, answer this question very fairly. Somerset; being one of the average shires of England. The orthography is conformed to original record:
s. d.
Mowers per diem, findeing themselves: 1 2 Mowers at meate and drinke: 0 7 Men makeing hay per diem, findeing themselves: 0 10 Men at meate and drinke: 0 6 Women makeing hay: 0 7 Women at meate and drinke: 0 4 Men reapeing corne per diem, findeing themselves: 1 2 Men reapinge corne at meate and drinke: 0 8 Moweing an acre of gra.s.se, findeing themselves: 1 2 Moweing an acre of gra.s.se to hay: 1 6 Moweing an acre of barley: 1 1 Reapeinge and bindeinge an acre of wheate: 3 0 Cuttinge and bindeinge an acre of beanes and hookinge: 2 0
The shilling is about 24 cents and the penny 2 cents.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE SIGNERS.--The following is the list of names appended to that famous doc.u.ment, with the colony which each represented in Congress:
New Hampshire--Josiah Bartlett; William Whipple, Matthew Thornton.
Ma.s.sachusetts--John Hanc.o.c.k, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Robert Treat Paine.
Rhode Island--Elbridge Gerry, Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery.
Connecticut--Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott.
New York--William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris.
New Jersey--Richard Hockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark.
Pennsylvania--Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross.
Delaware--Caesar Rodney, George Reed, Thomas McKean.
Maryland--Samuel Chase, Thomas Stone, William Paca, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton.
Virginia--George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton.
North Carolina--William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn.
South Carolina--Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton.
Georgia--b.u.t.ton Gwinntet, Lyman Hall, George Walton.
LIFE OF ETHAN ALLEN.--Colonel Ethan Allan was captured in an attack upon Montreal, September 25, 1775. He was sent as prisoner to Great Britain, ostensibly for trial, but in a few months was sent back to America, and confined in prison ships and jails at Halifax and New York till May 3, 1778, when he was exchanged. During most of his captivity he was treated as a felon and kept heavily ironed, but during 1777 was allowed restricted liberty on parole. After his exchange he again offered his services to the patriot army, but because of trouble in Vermont was put in command of the militia in that State. The British authorities were at that time making especial efforts to secure the allegiance of the Vermonters, and it was owing to Allen"s skillful negotiations that the question was kept open until the theater of war was changed, thus keeping the colony on the American side, but avoiding the attacks from the British that would certainly have followed an open avowal of their political preferences. Allen died at Burlington, Vt., February 13, 1789.
BURIAL CUSTOMS.--Among the early Christians the dead were buried with the face upward and the feet toward the east, in token of the resurrection at the coming again of the Sun of Righteousness. It cannot be said, however, that the custom was first used by the Christians. It was in practice among early pagan nations also, and is regarded as a survival of the ideas of the fire-worshipers. The sun, which was the impersonation of deity to many primitive races, had his home in their mythology in the east, and out of respect for him the dead were placed facing this quarter, among certain tribes always in a sitting posture. It may also be remarked that among other races the position was reversed, the dead body being placed with its feet toward the west, because the region of sunset was the home of the departed spirits.
THE SURRENDER OF LEE TO GRANT.--The surrender of General Lee was made at the house of a farmer named McLean, in Appomattox village, that house having been selected by General Lee himself at General Grant"s request for the interview. General Grant went thither, and was met by General Lee on the threshold. The two went into the parlor of the house, a small room, containing little furnishing but a table and several chairs. About twenty Union officers besides General Grant were present, among them the members of the General"s staff. The only Confederate officer with General Lee was Colonel Marshall, who acted as his secretary. General Lee, as well as his aid, was in full uniform, and wore a burnished sword which was given him by the State of Virginia; General Grant was in plain uniform, without a sword.
After a brief conversation, relative to the meeting of the two generals while soldiers in Mexico, General Lee adverted at once to the object of the interview by asking on what terms the surrender of his army would be received. General Grant replied that officers and men must become prisoners of war, giving up of course all munitions, weapons and supplies, but that a parole would be accepted. General Lee then requested that the terms should be put in writing, that he might sign them. General Badeau says that while General Grant was writing the conditions of surrender he chanced to look up and his eye caught the glitter of General Lee"s sword, and that this sight induced him to insert the provision that the "officers should be allowed to retain their side-arms, horses and personal property." This historian thinks that General Lee fully expected to give up his sword, and that General Grant omitted this from the terms of surrender out of consideration for the feelings of a soldier. Badeau says that General Lee was evidently much touched by the clemency of his adversary in this regard. The Confederate chief now wrote his acceptance of the terms offered and signed them. He further requested that the cavalry and artillery soldiers might be allowed to retain their horses as well as the officers, to which General Grant consented, and asked that a supply train left at Danville might be allowed to pa.s.s on, as his soldiers were without food. The reply of General Grant to this was an order that 25,000 rations should be immediately issued from the commissariat of the National army to the Army of Northern Virginia.
The formal papers were now drawn up and signed, and the interview which ended one of the greatest wars of modern times was over.
COLORED POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS.--The following will show the white and colored population of the United States, from 1790 to 1880, inclusive:
Year White. Colored Free. Colored Slaves.
1790 3,172,006 59,527 697,681 1800 4,306,446 108,435 893,002 1810 5,862,073 186,446 1,191,362 1820 7,862,166 223,634 1,538,022 1830 10,538,378 319,599 2,009,043 1840 14,195,805 386,293 2,487,355 1850 19,553,068 434,495 3,204,313 1860 26,922,537 488,070 3,953,760 1870 33,589,377 4,880,009 None.
1880 43,402,970 6,580,973 None.
ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.--From 1496 to 1857 there were 134 voyages and land journeys undertaken by governments and explorers of Europe and America to investigate the unknown region around the North Pole. Of these, sixty-three went to the northwest, twenty-nine via Behring Straits, and the rest to the northeast or due north. Since 1857 there have been the notable expeditions of Dr. Hayes, of Captain Hall, those of Nordenskjold, and others sent by Germany, Russia and Denmark; three voyages made by James Lament, of the Royal Geographical Society, England, at his own expense; the expeditions of Sir George Nares, of Leigh Smith, and that of the ill-fated Jeannette; the search expeditions of the Tigress, the Juniata, and those sent to rescue Lieutenant Greely; further, all the expeditions fitted out under the auspices of the Polar Commission--in which the Greely expedition was included--and a number of minor voyages, making a sum total of some sixty exploring journeys in these twenty-seven years.
THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO.--The battle of Waterloo was fought June 18, 1815, between the allied British, Netherland and German troops under Wellington and the French under Napoleon. On June 16 Napoleon had attacked the Prussians under Blucher at Ligny and forced them to retreat toward Wavre, and Marshal Noy at the same time attacked the British and Dutch forces at Quatre Bras, but was forced to retire after an engagement of five hours. Napoleon"s object, however, which was to prevent a union of the Prussians with Wellington"s main army, was partially gained. The latter commander, having learned the next morning of Blucher"s repulse, moved on to Waterloo expecting that the Prussian commander, according to previous arrangement, would join him there as speedily as possible. On June 17 Napoleon also moved toward Waterloo with the main body of his army, having directed Marshal Grouchy with 34,000 men and ninety-six guns to pursue Blucher"s command toward Wavre.
Both armies bivouacked on the field of Waterloo, and the next morning Napoleon, confident that Grouchy would prevent the arrival of the Prussians, delayed attack until the ground should become dry, a heavy shower having fallen on the day previous. The forces under Wellington occupied a semi-circular ridge a mile and a half in length, and the French were on an opposite ridge, the two being separated by a valley about 500 yards wide. The plan of Napoleon was to turn the allied left, force it back upon center, and gain possession of the enemy"s line of retreat. To draw off Wellington"s attention to his right, French troops were sent about 11 o"clock to attack the chateau of Houguemont, which the English had fortified. After a fight of more than two hours this was still in the possession of its defenders. About 1 o"clock a Prussian corps under Bulow was seen approaching on the French right, and Napoleon, finding it necessary to send 10,000 men to check their advance, was obliged to change the plan of battle. He therefore ordered a fierce attack upon the allied center. Wellington ma.s.sed his troops there, and the battle was obstinately maintained for five hours, with
varying success to the partic.i.p.ants, both commanders hourly expecting re-enforcements. Wellington was waiting for Blucher and Napoleon for Grouchy. The French at last were gaining ground; the allied troops in the center were wavering under Ney"s impetuous onslaughts, General Durutte had forced back the left, and Bulow"s troops on the right had been forced to yield the position they had taken. Now, however, there were rumors that Blucher"s army was approaching and the allies again rallied. At 7 o"clock Napoleon, despairing of the approach of Grouchy, determined to decide the day by a charge of the Old Guard, which had been held in reserve. At this stage the advance of Prussian horse on the allied left forced back General Durutte"s troops, and the Old Guard formed in squares to cover this retreat. Ney"s division surrounded, made a gallant struggle--their brave leader still unwounded, though five horses had been shot under him, heading them on foot, sword in hand--but were forced to give way. The Old Guard held their ground against overwhelming numbers. Finally, when five squares were broken, the Emperor gave the order to "fall back." The cry "The Guard is repulsed"
spread consternation through the French army and threatened to turn retreat into precipitate flight. Napoleon, seeing this, reformed the Guard in order to give a rallying point for the fugitives. Failing in this, he declared that he would die within the square, but Marshal Soult hurried him away. The heroic band, surrounded, was bidden to surrender.
"The Old Guard dies, but never surrenders" is the reply popularly attributed to General Cambronne, and with the cry of "Vive l"Empereur!"
the remnant of the Guard made a last charge upon the enemy and perished almost to a man. The forces of Blucher being now upon the field, the rout of the French was complete, and the Prussians pursued the fleeing troops, capturing guns and men. There is no doubt that the failure of Grouchy to come upon the field caused Napoleon to lose his last great battle. It was subsequently a.s.serted that this marshal was bribed, but there seems to be no real foundation for so base a charge. The trouble was that he had been ordered by Napoleon to follow the Prussians toward Wavre and thought it necessary to follow the strict letter of his instructions. Before he reached the village the main body of the Prussian force was on its way to Waterloo, but one division had been left there to occupy his attention. Engaged in skirmishing with this, he paid no attention to the advice of his subordinate generals who, hearing the terrible cannonading at Waterloo, besought him to go to the aid of the army there. Napoleon believing that he was either holding back Blucher"s forces or was hotly pursuing them, did not recall him to the main army, and the decisive battle was lost. Grouchy was summoned before a council of war, but the court declared itself incompetent to decide his case, and nothing further came of it.
OUR NATIONAL CEMETERIES.--National Cemeteries for soldiers and sailors may be said to have originated in 1850, the army appropriation bill of that year appropriating money for a cemetery near the City of Mexico, for the interment of the remains of soldiers who fell in the Mexican War. The remains of Federal soldiers and sailors who fell in the war for the Union have been buried in seventy-eight cemeteries exclusive of those interred elsewhere, a far greater number.
In the subjoined list are given the names and locations of the National Cemeteries with the number therein buried, known and unknown.
We have no means of knowing what cemeteries also contain the bodies of Southern soldiers:
(Location): Known; Unknown
Cypress Hill, N. Y.: 3,675; 70 Woodlawn, Elmira, N. Y.: 3,096; ---- Beverly, N. J.: 142; 7 Finn"s Point, N.J.: ----; 2,644 Gettysburg, Pa.: 1,967; 1,608 Philadelphia, Pa.: 1,880; 28 Annapolis, Md.: 2,289; 197 Antietam, Md.: 2,853; 1,811 London Park, Baltimore, Md.: 1,627; 168 Laurel, Baltimore, Md.: 232; 6 Soldiers" Home, D. C.: 5,313; 288 Battle, D. C.: 13; ---- Grafton, W. Va.: 634; 620 Arlington, Va.: 11,911; 4,349 Alexandria, Va.: 3,434; 124 Ball"s Bluff, Va.: 1; 24 Cold Harbor, Va.: 672; 1,281 City Point, Va.: 3,779; 1,374 Culpepper, Va.: 454; 910 Danville, Va.: 1,171; 155 Fredericksburg, Va.: 2,487; 12,770 Fort Harrison, Va.: 239; 575 Glendale, Va.: 233; 961 Hampton, Va.: 4,808; 494 Poplar Grove, Va.: 2,197; 3,993 Richmond, Va.: 841; 5,700 Seven Pines, Va.: 150; 1,208 Staunton, Va.: 233; 520 Winchester, Va.: 2,094; 2,301 Yorktown, Va.: 748; 1,434 Newbern, N. C.: 2,174; 1,077 Raleigh, N. C.: 625; 553 Salisbury, N. C.: 94; 12,032 Wilmington, N. C.: 710; 1,398 Beaufort, S. C.: 4,748; 4,493 Florence, S. C.: 199; 2,799 Andersonville, Ga.: 12,878; 959 Marietta, Ga.: 7,182; 2,963 Barrancas, Fla.: 791; 657 Mobile, Ala.: 751; 112 Corinth, Miss.: 1,788; 3,920 Natchez, Miss.: 308; 2,780 Vicksburg, Miss.: 3,896; 12,704 Alexandria, La.: 534; 772 Baton Rouge, La.: 2,468; 495 Chalmette, La.: 6,833; 5,075 Port Hudson, La.: 590; 3,218 Brownsville, Texas: 1,409; 1,379 San Antonio, Texas: 307; 167 Fayetteville, Ark.: 431; 781 Fort Smith, Ark.: 706; 1,152 Little Rock, Ark.: 3,260; 2,337 Chattanooga, Tenn.: 7,993; 4,903 Fort Donelson, Tenn.: 158; 511 Knoxville, Tenn.: 2,089; 1,040 Memphis, Tenn.: 5,150; 8,817 Nashville, Tenn.: 11,824; 4,692 Pittsburg Landing, Tenn.: 1,229; 2,361 Stone River, Tenn.: 3,820; 2,314 Camp Nelson, Ky.: 2,477; 1,165 Cave Hill, Louisville, Ky.: 3,342; 583 Danville, Ky.: 346; 12 Lebanon, Ky.: 591; 277 Lexington, Ky.: 824; 105 Logan"s, Ky.: 345; 366 Crown Hill, Indianapolis, Ind.: 686; 36 New Albany, Ind.: 2,138; 676 Camp Butler, Ill.: 1,007; 355 Mound City, Ill.: 2,505; 2,721 Rock Island, Ill.: 280; 9 Jefferson Barracks, Mo.: 8,569; 2,906 Jefferson City, Mo.: 348; 412 Springfield, Mo.: 845; 713 Fort Leavenworth, Kas.: 821; 913 Fort Scott, Kas.: 388; 161 Keokuk, Iowa: 610; 21 Fort Gibson, I. T.: 212; 2,212 Fort McPherson, Neb.: 149; 291 City of Mexico, Mexico: 254; 750
THE CATACOMBS OF PARIS.--The so-called catacombs of Paris were never catacombs in the ancient sense of the word, and were not devoted to purposes of sepulture until 1784. In that year the Council of State issued a decree for clearing the Cemetery of the Innocents, and for removing its contents, as well as those of other graveyards, into the quarries which had existed from the earlier times under the city of Paris and completely undermined the southern part of the city.
Engineers and workmen were sent to examine the quarries and to prop up their roofs lest the weight of buildings above should break them in.
April 7, 1786, the consecration of the catacombs was performed with great solemnity, and the work of removal from the cemeteries was immediately begun. This work was all performed by night; the bones were brought in funeral cars, covered with a pall, and followed by priests chanting the service of the dead, and when they reached the catacombs the bones were shot down the shaft. As the cemeteries were cleared by order of the government, their contents were removed to this place of general deposit, and these catacombs further served as convenient receptacles for those who perished in the revolution. At first the bones were heaped up without any kind of order except that those from each cemetery were kept separate, but in 1810 a regular system of arranging them was commenced, and the skulls and bones were built up along the wall. From the main entrance to the catacombs, which is near the barriers d"Enfer, a flight of ninety steps descends, at whose foot galleries are seen branching in various directions. Some yards distant is a vestibule of octagonal form, which opens into a long gallery lined with bones from floor to roof. The arm, leg and thigh bones are in front, closely and regularly piled, and their uniformity is relieved by three rows of skulls at equal distances.
Behind these are thrown the smaller bones. This gallery conducts to several rooms resembling chapels, lined with bones variously arranged.
One is called the "Tomb of the Revolution." another the "Tomb of Victims," the latter containing the relics of those who perished in the early period of the revolution and in the "Ma.s.sacre of September."
It is estimated that the remains of 3,000,000 human beings lie in this receptacle. Admission to these catacombs has for years been strictly forbidden on account of the unsafe condition of the roof. They are said to comprise an extent of about 3,250,000 square yards.