2 Hamlin Garland, in Hamlin Garland, in A Son of the Middle Border, A Son of the Middle Border, and O. E. Rolvaag, in and O. E. Rolvaag, in Giants of the Earth, Giants of the Earth, are as vivid reporters as any of the delights of a plains winter in a shack. Garland, of course, represented the "commuter," who homesteaded his land with the intention of selling it. Rolvaag"s Per Hansa, and other immigrants like him, had no escape hatch; they had to stick it out or perish. are as vivid reporters as any of the delights of a plains winter in a shack. Garland, of course, represented the "commuter," who homesteaded his land with the intention of selling it. Rolvaag"s Per Hansa, and other immigrants like him, had no escape hatch; they had to stick it out or perish.
3 The effects of the drouth and of the collapse of the wild land-speculation boom in the eighteen-eighties are well summarized in Fred A. Shannon, The effects of the drouth and of the collapse of the wild land-speculation boom in the eighteen-eighties are well summarized in Fred A. Shannon, The Farmer"s Last Frontier, The Farmer"s Last Frontier, pp. 308-9. Shannon says, in part, "In the intermediate area [what Powell called the subhumid zone, approximately between the 96th and 101st meridians] when crop failure became evident in the early fall of 1887, the inhabitants became panicky and began dumping their speculative holdings on the market. There was a deluge of mortgage foreclosures, extending on down through the panic year of 1893.... Often, however, the farmer welcomed foreclosure, for the mortgage was worth more than the land. Half the population of western Kansas moved out between 1888 and 1892, and large portions of the plains from Kansas to North Dakota were virtually depopulated. As late as 1891, at least eighteen thousand prairie schooners entered Iowa from Nebraska. Many immigrants from Kansas braved it out with signs painted on their wagons such as: "In G.o.d we trusted, in Kansas we busted." Twenty towns in western Kansas were reported as totally depopulated." pp. 308-9. Shannon says, in part, "In the intermediate area [what Powell called the subhumid zone, approximately between the 96th and 101st meridians] when crop failure became evident in the early fall of 1887, the inhabitants became panicky and began dumping their speculative holdings on the market. There was a deluge of mortgage foreclosures, extending on down through the panic year of 1893.... Often, however, the farmer welcomed foreclosure, for the mortgage was worth more than the land. Half the population of western Kansas moved out between 1888 and 1892, and large portions of the plains from Kansas to North Dakota were virtually depopulated. As late as 1891, at least eighteen thousand prairie schooners entered Iowa from Nebraska. Many immigrants from Kansas braved it out with signs painted on their wagons such as: "In G.o.d we trusted, in Kansas we busted." Twenty towns in western Kansas were reported as totally depopulated."
4 In talking about homesteaders on the plains, I am drawing partly on the memories of a boyhood spent on just such a homestead from 1914 to 1919. Though it happened to be in Saskatchewan, it could as well have been in Dakota or Montana; though it happened to have been during the years of World War I, it could as easily have been in the eighteen-eighties. The conditions, the climate, the hopes, the people, the discomforts, the delusions - and the casualties - were identical. Saskatchewan in 1919 had learned practically nothing from the more than fifty years of attempts to break the plains in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. In talking about homesteaders on the plains, I am drawing partly on the memories of a boyhood spent on just such a homestead from 1914 to 1919. Though it happened to be in Saskatchewan, it could as well have been in Dakota or Montana; though it happened to have been during the years of World War I, it could as easily have been in the eighteen-eighties. The conditions, the climate, the hopes, the people, the discomforts, the delusions - and the casualties - were identical. Saskatchewan in 1919 had learned practically nothing from the more than fifty years of attempts to break the plains in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas.
5 Garland, Garland, A Son of the Middle Border, A Son of the Middle Border, p. 308. p. 308.
6 For Powell"s public opinions on the moral to be drawn from the Johnstown flood, and his attempt not only to allay popular fear of all dams, but to use the disaster as a moral imperative to over-all planning, see "The Lesson of Conemaugh," For Powell"s public opinions on the moral to be drawn from the Johnstown flood, and his attempt not only to allay popular fear of all dams, but to use the disaster as a moral imperative to over-all planning, see "The Lesson of Conemaugh," North American Review, North American Review, CXLIX (1889), 150-56. CXLIX (1889), 150-56.
7 Powell to the Secretary of the Interior, March 13, 1888, United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, XLI, Nos. 362-88. Powell to the Secretary of the Interior, March 13, 1888, United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, XLI, Nos. 362-88.
8 The needs, conditions, and policies outlined in Powell"s letter of March 13 were essentially those on which he conducted his whole campaign for regional planning in the West during the next four years. They difler only in details, and in the greater amplification that years of experience had suggested, from those of the The needs, conditions, and policies outlined in Powell"s letter of March 13 were essentially those on which he conducted his whole campaign for regional planning in the West during the next four years. They difler only in details, and in the greater amplification that years of experience had suggested, from those of the Report on the Lands of the Arid Regions Report on the Lands of the Arid Regions ten years before. ten years before.
9 The resolutions and acts bearing upon the initiation of the Irrigation Survey are listed in United States Geological Survey, The resolutions and acts bearing upon the initiation of the Irrigation Survey are listed in United States Geological Survey, 10th Annual Report, 1889, 10th Annual Report, 1889, pp. 1-80. The organic law, like much of that authorizing Geological Survey activity, was multiple and circuitous. The Joint Resolution of March 20, 1888, had the force of law, but the Irrigation Survey was not officially inst.i.tuted until the Sundry Civil Expenses Bill, pa.s.sed on October 2, 1888 pp. 1-80. The organic law, like much of that authorizing Geological Survey activity, was multiple and circuitous. The Joint Resolution of March 20, 1888, had the force of law, but the Irrigation Survey was not officially inst.i.tuted until the Sundry Civil Expenses Bill, pa.s.sed on October 2, 1888 (24 Stat. L., (24 Stat. L., 255) appropriated $100,000 for its operations. October 2, 1888, is therefore the true beginning date for the Irrigation Survey. 255) appropriated $100,000 for its operations. October 2, 1888, is therefore the true beginning date for the Irrigation Survey.
For the detailed activities of the Irrigation Survey, see United States Geological Survey, 10th, 11th, 12th 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th Annual Reports, 13th Annual Reports, the last three of which have Irrigation supplements; Everett W. Sterling, "The Powell Irrigation Survey, 1888-1893," the last three of which have Irrigation supplements; Everett W. Sterling, "The Powell Irrigation Survey, 1888-1893," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XXVII, No. 3 (December, 1940), 421-34; Darrah, XXVII, No. 3 (December, 1940), 421-34; Darrah, Powell of the Colorado, Powell of the Colorado, pp. 300-314; United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent and Letters Received, 1888-1892; and "Statement of Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey," Senate Report No. 1466, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., July 2, 1890, pp. 46-109, 131-36. There is also useful material in Effie M. Mack, "William M. Stewart," unpublished University of California Ph.D. dissertation (Berkeley, 1930); G. R. Brown, ed., pp. 300-314; United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent and Letters Received, 1888-1892; and "Statement of Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey," Senate Report No. 1466, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., July 2, 1890, pp. 46-109, 131-36. There is also useful material in Effie M. Mack, "William M. Stewart," unpublished University of California Ph.D. dissertation (Berkeley, 1930); G. R. Brown, ed., The Reminiscences of Senator William M. Stewart of Nevada; The Reminiscences of Senator William M. Stewart of Nevada; Harold H. Dunham, "Some Crucial Years of the General Land Office, 1875-90," Harold H. Dunham, "Some Crucial Years of the General Land Office, 1875-90," Agricultural History, Agricultural History, XI (1937), 129-30; R. P. Teele, XI (1937), 129-30; R. P. Teele, Economics of Land Reclamation, Economics of Land Reclamation, 1927, pp. 202-54; and Benjamin Hibbard, 1927, pp. 202-54; and Benjamin Hibbard, A History of the Public Land Policies A History of the Public Land Policies (New York, 1924), pp. 562-63. I have relied primarily on the letter books, (New York, 1924), pp. 562-63. I have relied primarily on the letter books, the Annual Reports, the Annual Reports, Senate Report No. 1466, and Sterling. Senate Report No. 1466, and Sterling.
10 "Statement of Major J. W. Powell," Senate Report No. 1466. "Statement of Major J. W. Powell," Senate Report No. 1466.
11 It is this Irrigation Survey, his second attempt to put into practice a sane reclamation policy for the West and to modify the land laws to preserve both natural and human resources, that makes Powell as important now as he ever was while alive. As we shall see, there is a clear line of development from his It is this Irrigation Survey, his second attempt to put into practice a sane reclamation policy for the West and to modify the land laws to preserve both natural and human resources, that makes Powell as important now as he ever was while alive. As we shall see, there is a clear line of development from his Arid Regions Arid Regions in 1878 to the multi-purpose river-control installations and the multi-bureaued federal administration of the Public Domain that we have known through much of the twentieth century and especially since the nineteen-thirties. in 1878 to the multi-purpose river-control installations and the multi-bureaued federal administration of the Public Domain that we have known through much of the twentieth century and especially since the nineteen-thirties.
2.
1 He paints his own portrait better than any one else could do it, in his He paints his own portrait better than any one else could do it, in his Reminiscences Reminiscences and in his letters. and in his letters.
2 Powell to Secretary of the Interior John W. n.o.ble, January 2,1889. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-13, p. 242. Powell to Secretary of the Interior John W. n.o.ble, January 2,1889. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-13, p. 242.
3 Frederick Jackson Turner, Frederick Jackson Turner, Frontier in American History Frontier in American History (New York, 1920). (New York, 1920).
4 The most thorough presentation of the aims and accomplishments of the last real flare-up of agrarian radicalism is John Hicks, The most thorough presentation of the aims and accomplishments of the last real flare-up of agrarian radicalism is John Hicks, The Populist Revolt The Populist Revolt (St. Paul, Minnesota, 1931). (St. Paul, Minnesota, 1931).
5 United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-14, p. 27. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-14, p. 27.
6 Ibid., Ibid., pp. 263-73. pp. 263-73.
7 Ibid., Ibid., 173-15, p. 3. 173-15, p. 3.
8 The inside account of the El Paso Dam and the machinations which prevented its being built is in Anson Mills, The inside account of the El Paso Dam and the machinations which prevented its being built is in Anson Mills, My Story My Story (New York, 1918). See also George Wharton James, (New York, 1918). See also George Wharton James, Reclaiming the Arid West, Reclaiming the Arid West, pp. 250-59; pp. 250-59; Powell of the Colorado, Powell of the Colorado, pp. 301-3; United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-16, p. 232; 173-14, pp. 316, 498. pp. 301-3; United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-16, p. 232; 173-14, pp. 316, 498.
9 The subject of water law in the West is so complex as to be utterly confusing to the layman. The best advice possible for anyone needing information in that direction is to see a lawyer, and not just any lawyer either, but one who has made a lifelong specialty of irrigation law. A general work intended for but not necessarily comprehensible to the layman is C. S. Kinney"s The subject of water law in the West is so complex as to be utterly confusing to the layman. The best advice possible for anyone needing information in that direction is to see a lawyer, and not just any lawyer either, but one who has made a lifelong specialty of irrigation law. A general work intended for but not necessarily comprehensible to the layman is C. S. Kinney"s Law of Irrigation, Law of Irrigation, whose full t.i.tle is a true indication of the entanglements to be found therein: whose full t.i.tle is a true indication of the entanglements to be found therein: A Treatise on the law of irrigation and water rights and the arid region doctrine of appropriation of waters as the same is in force in the states A Treatise on the law of irrigation and water rights and the arid region doctrine of appropriation of waters as the same is in force in the states of the of the arid and semi-arid regions of the United States; and also including an abstract arid and semi-arid regions of the United States; and also including an abstract of of the statutes of the respective states, and the decisions" of the courts relating to those subjects, the statutes of the respective states, and the decisions" of the courts relating to those subjects, 2nd ed., revised and enlarged to October 1, 1912 (San Francisco, 1912). 2nd ed., revised and enlarged to October 1, 1912 (San Francisco, 1912).
10 United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-14, p. 464. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-14, p. 464.
11 Stewart"s speech repeats Powell"s thesis of the history of irrigation agriculture, the effectiveness of irrigation as a civilizing agency, the notion that no settled agriculture historically appears except in lands which demand control of stream waters; and it borrows a host of Powell"s ill.u.s.trations from the history of Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the American Southwest. Compare J. W. Powell, "The Lesson of Conemaugh," and also "The History of Irrigation," Stewart"s speech repeats Powell"s thesis of the history of irrigation agriculture, the effectiveness of irrigation as a civilizing agency, the notion that no settled agriculture historically appears except in lands which demand control of stream waters; and it borrows a host of Powell"s ill.u.s.trations from the history of Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the American Southwest. Compare J. W. Powell, "The Lesson of Conemaugh," and also "The History of Irrigation," Independent, Independent, XLV (May 4, 1893), 1-3. XLV (May 4, 1893), 1-3.
12 This speech of Powell"s has been several times reprinted. This speech of Powell"s has been several times reprinted. See Reclamation See Reclamation Era, XXVI, 201-2, or Era, XXVI, 201-2, or Debates, Debates, North Dakota Const.i.tutional Convention, 1889 (Bismarck, N.D., 1889), pp. 410-12. North Dakota Const.i.tutional Convention, 1889 (Bismarck, N.D., 1889), pp. 410-12.
13 Powell, "The Lesson of Conemaugh." Powell, "The Lesson of Conemaugh."
14 Powell"s biographers and writers on reclamation generally seem to have overlooked this speech, which is of first importance in any study of Powell"s developing ideas for proper arid-land inst.i.tutions. Powell"s biographers and writers on reclamation generally seem to have overlooked this speech, which is of first importance in any study of Powell"s developing ideas for proper arid-land inst.i.tutions. See Proceedings and Debates, Montana Const.i.tutional Convention, 1889, See Proceedings and Debates, Montana Const.i.tutional Convention, 1889, pp. 803-23. pp. 803-23.
3.
1 Journals and Debates of the Const.i.tutional Convention, Wyoming, September 2-30, 1889 Journals and Debates of the Const.i.tutional Convention, Wyoming, September 2-30, 1889 (Cheyenne, Wyo., 1893), contains stiff and recurrent arguments on the proper basis of water rights. It was the const.i.tution-framers" serious intention of setting a firm foundation of water law that led to their adoption of the Powell-Mead principle of water rights tied inseparably to land. (Cheyenne, Wyo., 1893), contains stiff and recurrent arguments on the proper basis of water rights. It was the const.i.tution-framers" serious intention of setting a firm foundation of water law that led to their adoption of the Powell-Mead principle of water rights tied inseparably to land.
2 It is apparent from the transcript of the hearings before the Appropriations Committee, when the Irrigation Survey was not yet more than a vague idea, that Stewart and Powell had widely different views of what was necessary. One of the essential differences was the matter of preliminary topographical maps, the question of long-range It is apparent from the transcript of the hearings before the Appropriations Committee, when the Irrigation Survey was not yet more than a vague idea, that Stewart and Powell had widely different views of what was necessary. One of the essential differences was the matter of preliminary topographical maps, the question of long-range vs. vs. short-range planning. Senate Report No. 1814, 50th Cong., 1st Sess. short-range planning. Senate Report No. 1814, 50th Cong., 1st Sess.
3 Proceedings and Debates, Idaho Const.i.tutional Convention, 1889 Proceedings and Debates, Idaho Const.i.tutional Convention, 1889 (Cald well, Ida., 1912), pp. 1929-30. (Cald well, Ida., 1912), pp. 1929-30.
4 For discussion of the meaning of the Acting Commissioner"s action, and of the political whirlwind that followed, see Sterling, "The Powell Irrigation Survey, 1888-1893." A search of the letter books of the Survey and of the records of Congressional hearings and debates will doc.u.ment Sterling but not modify his conclusions. See also Darrah, For discussion of the meaning of the Acting Commissioner"s action, and of the political whirlwind that followed, see Sterling, "The Powell Irrigation Survey, 1888-1893." A search of the letter books of the Survey and of the records of Congressional hearings and debates will doc.u.ment Sterling but not modify his conclusions. See also Darrah, Powell of the Colorado, Powell of the Colorado, pp. 299-314. Though few historians have made much of it, the closing of the entries was a most important event. No single action could have been a sharper blow at the typical Western expansiveness and wishfulness and optimism; hardly any act could have had such an immediate and explosive political reaction. Hardly any act could have posed the argument between fact and myth beyond the 100th meridian so dramatically. This was one of the major landmarks on the way to our contemporary land policies. The motive behind the closing of entries - the intention of partial predevelopment, of planned or steered settlement - is still heretical in some quarters in 1954 and was ten times as heretical in 1890. pp. 299-314. Though few historians have made much of it, the closing of the entries was a most important event. No single action could have been a sharper blow at the typical Western expansiveness and wishfulness and optimism; hardly any act could have had such an immediate and explosive political reaction. Hardly any act could have posed the argument between fact and myth beyond the 100th meridian so dramatically. This was one of the major landmarks on the way to our contemporary land policies. The motive behind the closing of entries - the intention of partial predevelopment, of planned or steered settlement - is still heretical in some quarters in 1954 and was ten times as heretical in 1890.
5 United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-15, p. 388. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-15, p. 388.
6 The resentment and uncertainty of local water companies was compounded by the widespread conviction that water was, a States" rights matter. The El Paso-Elephant b.u.t.te dam dispute was one evidence of how utter was the chaos that Powell was trying to compel toward order. Other evidences may be extracted from the letter books, especially United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-12, p. 384 (the relation between irrigation works on the upper Missouri and navigation and flood control on the lower Mississippi); 173-13, p. 148-(in whose interest was the survey being made?); 173-15, p. 3 (the Clear Lake protests from Senator Hearst"s const.i.tuents); 173-15, p. 13 (reasons for the segregation of the San Pitch reservoir site in Utah); 173-15, p. 388 (justification of request to segregate 8,000,000 acres of agricultural and forest and grazing land on the Snake River in Idaho and Wyoming); 173-16, p. 94 (answering questions of the Idaho Ca.n.a.l Company); 173-16, p. 155 (refusing an invitation to co-operate with George West of Greeley, Colorado, on a water deal); 173-16, p. 417 (private The resentment and uncertainty of local water companies was compounded by the widespread conviction that water was, a States" rights matter. The El Paso-Elephant b.u.t.te dam dispute was one evidence of how utter was the chaos that Powell was trying to compel toward order. Other evidences may be extracted from the letter books, especially United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-12, p. 384 (the relation between irrigation works on the upper Missouri and navigation and flood control on the lower Mississippi); 173-13, p. 148-(in whose interest was the survey being made?); 173-15, p. 3 (the Clear Lake protests from Senator Hearst"s const.i.tuents); 173-15, p. 13 (reasons for the segregation of the San Pitch reservoir site in Utah); 173-15, p. 388 (justification of request to segregate 8,000,000 acres of agricultural and forest and grazing land on the Snake River in Idaho and Wyoming); 173-16, p. 94 (answering questions of the Idaho Ca.n.a.l Company); 173-16, p. 155 (refusing an invitation to co-operate with George West of Greeley, Colorado, on a water deal); 173-16, p. 417 (private vs. vs. government control of water); 173-16, p. 488 (a pet.i.tion from the Florence Ca.n.a.l Company of Arizona to be confirmed in its t.i.tle). government control of water); 173-16, p. 488 (a pet.i.tion from the Florence Ca.n.a.l Company of Arizona to be confirmed in its t.i.tle).
7 Much of this testimony is cited or summarized or repeated in Senate Report No. 1466, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., July 2, 1890; and in House Report No. 2407, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., June 4, 1890. Much of this testimony is cited or summarized or repeated in Senate Report No. 1466, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., July 2, 1890; and in House Report No. 2407, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., June 4, 1890.
8 The most readily available expressions of these are in magazine articles. See "The Irrigable Lands of the Arid Region," "The Non-Irrigable Lands of the Arid Region," and "Inst.i.tutions for the Arid Lands," in The most readily available expressions of these are in magazine articles. See "The Irrigable Lands of the Arid Region," "The Non-Irrigable Lands of the Arid Region," and "Inst.i.tutions for the Arid Lands," in Century, Century, x.x.xIX and XL (March, April, and May, 1890); "The History of Irrigation," x.x.xIX and XL (March, April, and May, 1890); "The History of Irrigation," Independent, Independent, XLV (May 4, 1893), 1-3;, "The Lesson of Conemaugh," XLV (May 4, 1893), 1-3;, "The Lesson of Conemaugh," North American Review, North American Review, CXLIX (August, 1889), 150-58; "Our Recent Floods," CXLIX (August, 1889), 150-58; "Our Recent Floods," North American Review, North American Review, CLV (August, 1892), 149-59; "The New Lake in the Desert," CLV (August, 1892), 149-59; "The New Lake in the Desert," Scribner"s Scribner"s , X (October, 1891 ), 463-68. The views expressed in these and others during the period are of course duplicated and elaborated in his testimony before Congressional committees and in the , X (October, 1891 ), 463-68. The views expressed in these and others during the period are of course duplicated and elaborated in his testimony before Congressional committees and in the 10th, 11th, 12th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and and 13th Annual Reports 13th Annual Reports of the United States Geological Survey. of the United States Geological Survey.
9 Powell"s statement before the House Appropriations Committee, House Report No. 2407. Powell"s statement before the House Appropriations Committee, House Report No. 2407.
10 United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-16, p. 482. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-16, p. 482.
11 House Report No. 2407. House Report No. 2407.
12 Powell"s first defense against this was a long letter to Secretary of the Interior Vilas on May 31, 1890 (United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-17, pp. 166 ff.). The letter includes quotations from the records of committee hearings during the formative weeks of the Irrigation Survey, and these indicate that Powell based the idea of the Survey solidly on topography from the beginning. Stewart and the others had simply not understood how thoroughly he meant it. See also House Report No. 2407 and Senate Report No. 1466. Powell"s first defense against this was a long letter to Secretary of the Interior Vilas on May 31, 1890 (United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-17, pp. 166 ff.). The letter includes quotations from the records of committee hearings during the formative weeks of the Irrigation Survey, and these indicate that Powell based the idea of the Survey solidly on topography from the beginning. Stewart and the others had simply not understood how thoroughly he meant it. See also House Report No. 2407 and Senate Report No. 1466.
4.
1 The New York The New York Herald Herald on January 12 and again on January 19, when the dispute was continued and amplified, broke one of the most rancorous squabbles in the history of American science. The on January 12 and again on January 19, when the dispute was continued and amplified, broke one of the most rancorous squabbles in the history of American science. The Herald"s Herald"s Hosea Ballou, who was actually Cope"s ghost writer, rehea.r.s.ed all the charges and defenses, cited all the doc.u.ments, many of which turned out to have been distorted or used without their authors" permission, and lined up a formidable battery of Hosea Ballou, who was actually Cope"s ghost writer, rehea.r.s.ed all the charges and defenses, cited all the doc.u.ments, many of which turned out to have been distorted or used without their authors" permission, and lined up a formidable battery of scientists pro scientists pro and and contra contra Powell"s organization of government science. See also Schuchert and LeVene, Powell"s organization of government science. See also Schuchert and LeVene, O. C. Marsh, Pioneer in Paleontology, O. C. Marsh, Pioneer in Paleontology, and Henry Fairfield Osborn, and Henry Fairfield Osborn, Cope: Master Naturalist Cope: Master Naturalist (Princeton, 1931), for somewhat partisan but also somewhat sheepish and embarra.s.sed accounts of the row. Everybody connected with the dispute had reason to be sheepish, for the nature of the attack was such that no matter who won, everyone lost. (Princeton, 1931), for somewhat partisan but also somewhat sheepish and embarra.s.sed accounts of the row. Everybody connected with the dispute had reason to be sheepish, for the nature of the attack was such that no matter who won, everyone lost.
2 See Part IV, Chapter 5, See Part IV, Chapter 5, ante. ante.
3 New York New York Herald, Herald, January 19, 1890. January 19, 1890.
5.
1 House Report No. 2407, containing as it does Major Powell"s prepared answers to antic.i.p.ated questions, const.i.tutes a major doc.u.ment in the history of the Irrigation Survey. It gave Powell a chance not only to work on the opposition in Congress, but to broadcast his views to the public. This June 4 hearing and the July 2 one before the Senate Appropriations Committee represent the very peak and climax of his fight to inst.i.tute planning in the West. House Report No. 2407, containing as it does Major Powell"s prepared answers to antic.i.p.ated questions, const.i.tutes a major doc.u.ment in the history of the Irrigation Survey. It gave Powell a chance not only to work on the opposition in Congress, but to broadcast his views to the public. This June 4 hearing and the July 2 one before the Senate Appropriations Committee represent the very peak and climax of his fight to inst.i.tute planning in the West.
2 There had been no clear-cut definition of the arid lands throughout the entire controversy over the Irrigation Survey. Powell proceeded on a rational a.s.sumption and took in everything west of the 101st meridian, roughly. Finally, at the request of Commissioner L. A. Groff of the General Land Office, Powell on June 30, 1890, sent over a map indicating his understanding of what was meant by "irrigable lands" in the "arid regions." "As I understand it," he wrote, "the act of October 2, 1888, applies to these districts, the work of selecting reservoir sites, ca.n.a.l sites, and irrigable lands falls within these districts, and I am therefore of the opinion that the reservation of lands to be acquired from the General Government, only under the Homestead laws, after proclamation by the President, applies only to these districts." (United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-17, p. 289.) True to form, within two days Senator Stewart was using this explanatory map as the root of all the misunderstandings of the past two years, and basing on it a renewed attack on Powell. There had been no clear-cut definition of the arid lands throughout the entire controversy over the Irrigation Survey. Powell proceeded on a rational a.s.sumption and took in everything west of the 101st meridian, roughly. Finally, at the request of Commissioner L. A. Groff of the General Land Office, Powell on June 30, 1890, sent over a map indicating his understanding of what was meant by "irrigable lands" in the "arid regions." "As I understand it," he wrote, "the act of October 2, 1888, applies to these districts, the work of selecting reservoir sites, ca.n.a.l sites, and irrigable lands falls within these districts, and I am therefore of the opinion that the reservation of lands to be acquired from the General Government, only under the Homestead laws, after proclamation by the President, applies only to these districts." (United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-17, p. 289.) True to form, within two days Senator Stewart was using this explanatory map as the root of all the misunderstandings of the past two years, and basing on it a renewed attack on Powell.
3 Except in the general definition of policy, Dutton was the head of the Irrigation Survey. Even before November 21, 1888, when he was officially commissioned by Powell to direct the hydrographic work, all letters regarding irrigation were referred to him without comment. Except in the general definition of policy, Dutton was the head of the Irrigation Survey. Even before November 21, 1888, when he was officially commissioned by Powell to direct the hydrographic work, all letters regarding irrigation were referred to him without comment.
4 United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-17, p. 208. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-17, p. 208.
5 Senate Report No. 1466. Senate Report No. 1466.
6 See Part IV, Chapter 5, See Part IV, Chapter 5, ante. ante.
7 Elimination of the hydrographic work left Dutton out of a job. Though he might have been expected to continue his special arrangement with the Geological Survey which had absorbed his best energies since 1874, his testimony before the Irrigation Committee and his disagreement with Powell on the propriety of concentrating funds from both appropriations on topography led him to return to regular Army duty. He apparently believed, and apparently told Powell, that the topographical work being done with Irrigation Survey funds was illegal, though the record, read now, indicates that the irrigation clique approved topography until they found out what it entailed. See Letter from C. E. Dutton, Jr., appended to Stegner, "Clarence Edward Dutton," State University of Iowa unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, 1935. Elimination of the hydrographic work left Dutton out of a job. Though he might have been expected to continue his special arrangement with the Geological Survey which had absorbed his best energies since 1874, his testimony before the Irrigation Committee and his disagreement with Powell on the propriety of concentrating funds from both appropriations on topography led him to return to regular Army duty. He apparently believed, and apparently told Powell, that the topographical work being done with Irrigation Survey funds was illegal, though the record, read now, indicates that the irrigation clique approved topography until they found out what it entailed. See Letter from C. E. Dutton, Jr., appended to Stegner, "Clarence Edward Dutton," State University of Iowa unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, 1935.
8 The optimistic evolutionary aspect of Powell"s thought is nowhere so compactly developed as in his essay, "Sociology," in The optimistic evolutionary aspect of Powell"s thought is nowhere so compactly developed as in his essay, "Sociology," in American Anthropologist, American Anthropologist, n.s. I (July and October, 1899); but other essays in that series, which were to have been combined into the second volume of his n.s. I (July and October, 1899); but other essays in that series, which were to have been combined into the second volume of his novum organum, novum organum, repeat the theme in manifold ways. See "Technology," repeat the theme in manifold ways. See "Technology," American Anthropologist, American Anthropologist, n.s. I (April, 1899); "Esthetology," n.s. I (April, 1899); "Esthetology," American Anthropologist, American Anthropologist, n.s. I (January, 1899); "Philology," n.s. I (January, 1899); "Philology," American Anthropologist, American Anthropologist, n.s. II (October-December, 1900); and "Sophiology," n.s. II (October-December, 1900); and "Sophiology," American Anthropologist, American Anthropologist, n.s. III (January-March, 1901). n.s. III (January-March, 1901).
9 In a letter to a South Dakota correspondent on September 29, 1890, a month after the Senate had destroyed his Irrigation Survey and brought the General Plan to nothing, Powell wrote: "... I regret that a broader view of the subject could not have been taken and a sufficient appropriation made to carry on investigations in relation to all the waters of the arid and sub-humid regions which can be used in irrigation. Comparatively large appropriations should have been made and information given to the people at the earliest date and the largest extent. Such was my plan, and the House of Representatives deemed it wise, and the bill pa.s.sed that body; but I was unable to represent the matter in such a convincing light as to carry the judgement of the Senate.... In a letter to a South Dakota correspondent on September 29, 1890, a month after the Senate had destroyed his Irrigation Survey and brought the General Plan to nothing, Powell wrote: "... I regret that a broader view of the subject could not have been taken and a sufficient appropriation made to carry on investigations in relation to all the waters of the arid and sub-humid regions which can be used in irrigation. Comparatively large appropriations should have been made and information given to the people at the earliest date and the largest extent. Such was my plan, and the House of Representatives deemed it wise, and the bill pa.s.sed that body; but I was unable to represent the matter in such a convincing light as to carry the judgement of the Senate....
"Were it in my power, such an investigation of this country would be made as to secure full information for the people, so that in settling in the sub-humid region they would be aware of the fact that it is absolutely necessary in that country to provide against years of drought by storing sufficient water for the agricultural lands and by building the necessary irrigation works, and the investigation would be carried on so thoroughly that the people would know just where the water would be found and how it could be used...." United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-18, p. 151. His, aim, that is, was always primarily an informational one; his difficulty was that information could not be made available without its clashing with fantasy and the practical politics and speculation that depended on it.
6.
1 United States Geological Survey, 12th United States Geological Survey, 12th Annual Report, 1890-91. Annual Report, 1890-91.
2 Congressional Record, Congressional Record, Pt. 3, 45th Cong., 3rd Sess. Pt. 3, 45th Cong., 3rd Sess.
3 Shannon, Shannon, The Farmer"s Last Frontier, The Farmer"s Last Frontier, p. 309. p. 309.
4 O. C. Marsh, O. C. Marsh, Odontornithes: Odontornithes: a monograph on the extinct toothed birds of North America. United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel Report, VII, Washington, 1880. What actually caused the trouble was not this publication by the King Survey, however, but Powell"s reprinting of a forty-page abstract, in accordance with well-established practice, in the United States Geological Survey, a monograph on the extinct toothed birds of North America. United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel Report, VII, Washington, 1880. What actually caused the trouble was not this publication by the King Survey, however, but Powell"s reprinting of a forty-page abstract, in accordance with well-established practice, in the United States Geological Survey, 3rd Annual Report, 1881-82. 3rd Annual Report, 1881-82.
5 Herbert"s attacks on the Survey, on Marsh, and on Powell are distributed through several hundred pages of the Herbert"s attacks on the Survey, on Marsh, and on Powell are distributed through several hundred pages of the Congressional Record Congressional Record (1892), XXIII, Part 2. (1892), XXIII, Part 2.
6 During February, April, and May, 1883 - significantly during the very time when Hayden and Powell were trying, with somewhat ill grace, to settle the details of completing the publications of the Hayden Survey - there was a series of ruffled letters from Smith to Powell"s office. James Pilling eventually, on May 24, arranged for a personal meeting at the end of the month so that Smith could bring his objections of intrusions upon his state survey by the Geological Survey. On April 18 Powell himself had written to smooth Smith"s feathers and promised the fullest co-operation and consideration of Smith"s priorities and wishes. Apparently neither co-operation nor a personal interview cured Smith of his animus, and he remained one of the Cope crowd. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-4, pp. 122, 236, 303. During February, April, and May, 1883 - significantly during the very time when Hayden and Powell were trying, with somewhat ill grace, to settle the details of completing the publications of the Hayden Survey - there was a series of ruffled letters from Smith to Powell"s office. James Pilling eventually, on May 24, arranged for a personal meeting at the end of the month so that Smith could bring his objections of intrusions upon his state survey by the Geological Survey. On April 18 Powell himself had written to smooth Smith"s feathers and promised the fullest co-operation and consideration of Smith"s priorities and wishes. Apparently neither co-operation nor a personal interview cured Smith of his animus, and he remained one of the Cope crowd. United States Geological Survey, Letters Sent, 173-4, pp. 122, 236, 303.
7 Schuchert and LeVene, Schuchert and LeVene, O O. C. Marsh, Pioneer in Paleontology, C. Marsh, Pioneer in Paleontology, pp. 319-20. pp. 319-20.
8 William E. Smythe, a writer for the Omaha Bee and a zealous worker for reclamation, organized the first national Irrigation Congress at Salt Lake City in 1891; he also founded and edited William E. Smythe, a writer for the Omaha Bee and a zealous worker for reclamation, organized the first national Irrigation Congress at Salt Lake City in 1891; he also founded and edited Irrigation Age. Irrigation Age. His persistent publicizing of irrigation problems, and his organization of arid-belt farmers into a politically coherent group, made him the single most influential figure, with the exception of Major Powell, in the early years of reclamation. His own account of his activities and the fight for adequate reclamation policies is in His persistent publicizing of irrigation problems, and his organization of arid-belt farmers into a politically coherent group, made him the single most influential figure, with the exception of Major Powell, in the early years of reclamation. His own account of his activities and the fight for adequate reclamation policies is in The Conquest of Arid America The Conquest of Arid America (New York, 1900). (New York, 1900).
9 In his "Inst.i.tutions for the Arid Lands," Powell indicated what needed to be done in the West and remarked that of the three possible agencies of development - government, private corporations, and co-operative a.s.sociations of citizens - he much favored the last. Federal and state governments, he believed, needed to do nothing but establish statutes on the rights of land and water, and provide adequate district and state courts. He thought that the federal government ought to survey the public domain, hold some of it in trust for the co-operative local districts, cla.s.sify the public lands, and divide the waters by statute among the districts. Otherwise, control and administration of the timber, range, irrigable land, and water of the drainage-basin districts should be co-operative among the actual settlers. He hoped that such co operative a.s.sociations, once organized, might borrow corporation capital and thus bring together the small freeholders and the large corporations who were currently disputing control of the West, and tie them into some mutually profitable a.s.sociation. In his "Inst.i.tutions for the Arid Lands," Powell indicated what needed to be done in the West and remarked that of the three possible agencies of development - government, private corporations, and co-operative a.s.sociations of citizens - he much favored the last. Federal and state governments, he believed, needed to do nothing but establish statutes on the rights of land and water, and provide adequate district and state courts. He thought that the federal government ought to survey the public domain, hold some of it in trust for the co-operative local districts, cla.s.sify the public lands, and divide the waters by statute among the districts. Otherwise, control and administration of the timber, range, irrigable land, and water of the drainage-basin districts should be co-operative among the actual settlers. He hoped that such co operative a.s.sociations, once organized, might borrow corporation capital and thus bring together the small freeholders and the large corporations who were currently disputing control of the West, and tie them into some mutually profitable a.s.sociation.
10 International Irrigation Congress, International Irrigation Congress, Proceedings Proceedings (1893), pp. 106-7. (1893), pp. 106-7.
7.
1 Walcott was politically acceptable partly because he was a pure geologist, and had no interest in the Major"s land-reform schemes. Walcott was politically acceptable partly because he was a pure geologist, and had no interest in the Major"s land-reform schemes.
2 United States Geological Survey, United States Geological Survey, 15th Annual Report, 1893-94, 15th Annual Report, 1893-94, p. 7. p. 7.
3 Speech by W J McGee before a meeting of the Smithsonian in the National Museum, September 26, 1902. In S. P. Langley Speech by W J McGee before a meeting of the Smithsonian in the National Museum, September 26, 1902. In S. P. Langley et al., et al., "In Memory of John Wesley Powell," "In Memory of John Wesley Powell," Science, Science, n.s. XVI (1902), 782-90. n.s. XVI (1902), 782-90.
4 J. W. Powell, "The Larger Import of Scientific Education," J. W. Powell, "The Larger Import of Scientific Education," Popular Science Monthly, Popular Science Monthly, XXVI (February, 1885), pp. 452-6. XXVI (February, 1885), pp. 452-6.
5 J. W. Powell, J. W. Powell, Truth and Error Truth and Error (Chicago, 1898), p. 243. (Chicago, 1898), p. 243.
6 Lester A. Ward, Lester A. Ward, Dynamic Sociology, or Applied Social Science Dynamic Sociology, or Applied Social Science (New York, 1883). Ward"s thoughts on every sort of scientific and philosophical topic are collected in the six volumes characteristically t.i.tled (New York, 1883). Ward"s thoughts on every sort of scientific and philosophical topic are collected in the six volumes characteristically t.i.tled Glimpses of the Cosmos Glimpses of the Cosmos (New York, 1913-18). A considerably too enthusiastic estimate of Ward"s thought and career as biologist, sociologist, and philosopher is Samuel Chugarman, (New York, 1913-18). A considerably too enthusiastic estimate of Ward"s thought and career as biologist, sociologist, and philosopher is Samuel Chugarman, Lester Ward, the American Aristotle Lester Ward, the American Aristotle (Durham, N.C., 1939). (Durham, N.C., 1939).
7 Ward reviewed Ward reviewed Truth and Error, Truth and Error, not too favorably considering that the book was dedicated to him, in not too favorably considering that the book was dedicated to him, in Science, Science, n.s. IX (January 27, 1899), 126-37, and Powell replied - or retorted - in the same publication, IX (February 17, 1899), 259-63. n.s. IX (January 27, 1899), 126-37, and Powell replied - or retorted - in the same publication, IX (February 17, 1899), 259-63.
8 See especially "From Savagery to Barbarism," See especially "From Savagery to Barbarism," Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washington, Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washington, III (1885), 173-96; "From Barbarism to Civilization," III (1885), 173-96; "From Barbarism to Civilization," American Anthropologist, American Anthropologist, I (1888), 97-123; and "Human Evolution," I (1888), 97-123; and "Human Evolution," Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washington, Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washington, II (1883), 176-208. II (1883), 176-208.
9 The rather macabre settlement of the bet involved a study of Powell"s brain, which was made with almost phrenological solemnity by Dr. D. S. Lamb after Powell"s body had been embalmed in Haven, Maine, where he died, and brought to Washington. The solemn poking about in the "fissural complexities" of his brain was in keeping with Powell"s own experimental habit, as well as with his positivist philosophy and his belief in things, concretions, as the sources of observation and hence of knowledge. The study was published by E. A. Spitzka as "A Study of the Brain of the late Major J. W. Powell," The rather macabre settlement of the bet involved a study of Powell"s brain, which was made with almost phrenological solemnity by Dr. D. S. Lamb after Powell"s body had been embalmed in Haven, Maine, where he died, and brought to Washington. The solemn poking about in the "fissural complexities" of his brain was in keeping with Powell"s own experimental habit, as well as with his positivist philosophy and his belief in things, concretions, as the sources of observation and hence of knowledge. The study was published by E. A. Spitzka as "A Study of the Brain of the late Major J. W. Powell," American Anthropologist, American Anthropologist, n.s. V (1903), 585-643. n.s. V (1903), 585-643.
VI. THE INHERITANCE.
1.
1 Garlar tells of his acquaintance with Powell in Garlar tells of his acquaintance with Powell in Roadside Meetings Roadside Meetings (New York, 1930), pp. 361-63. (New York, 1930), pp. 361-63.
2 United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, "Present and Proposed Activities," January 1, 1951. A listing of Reclamation Bureau projects up to the year 1948 is in Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, "Present and Proposed Activities," January 1, 1951. A listing of Reclamation Bureau projects up to the year 1948 is in Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Reclamation Bureau Data Reclamation Bureau Data (Washington, 1948). (Washington, 1948).