CHAPTER 2: CLa.s.s TERROR.
1 Quotations: Siriol Colley, Quotations: Siriol Colley, More Than a Grain More Than a Grain, 212, 216.
2 Jones is cited in Siriol Colley, Jones is cited in Siriol Colley, More Than a Grain More Than a Grain, 218.
3 Quotation: Evans, Quotation: Evans, Coming Coming, 330.
4 On German voters, see King, "Ordinary," 987-988 and pa.s.sim. On Dachau, see Goeschel, On German voters, see King, "Ordinary," 987-988 and pa.s.sim. On Dachau, see Goeschel, Concentration Camps Concentration Camps, 14. For quotation and a.n.a.lysis of Himmler, see Eiber, "Gewalt in KZ Dachau," 172.
5 Evans, Evans, Power Power, 23.
6 Quotation: Quotation: Deutschosterreichische Tageszeitung Deutschosterreichische Tageszeitung, 3 March 1933.
7 On "cla.s.s against cla.s.s," see Brown, On "cla.s.s against cla.s.s," see Brown, Rise and Fall Rise and Fall, 85. On voting behavior, see King, "Ordinary," 987-988. See also, generally, Bayerlein, "Abschied."
8 Longerich, Longerich, Politik der Vernichtung Politik der Vernichtung, 26-32, quotation at 38; Tooze, Wages of Destruction Wages of Destruction, 73 73.
9 On the 37,000 German Jews, see Evans, On the 37,000 German Jews, see Evans, Power Power, 15. See also Longerich, Politik der Vernichtung Politik der Vernichtung, 126.
10 Longerich, Longerich, Politik der Vernichtung Politik der Vernichtung, 35.
11 Goeschel, Goeschel, Concentration Camps Concentration Camps, 7.
12 See, generally, Kruger, See, generally, Kruger, Die Auenpolitik Die Auenpolitik; Turner, Stresemann Stresemann; Snyder, Sketches Sketches.
13 Roos, Roos, Polen Polen, 130-154; Ken, Collective Security Collective Security, 94, 157; Kornat, Polityka Polityka, 32-33; Rossino, Hitler Hitler, 2.
14 Quotation: Davies, Quotation: Davies, Kaganovich Correspondence Kaganovich Correspondence, 33.
15 The surest guide is Koakowski, The surest guide is Koakowski, Main Currents. Main Currents. The most famous anecdotal definition is that provided by the veteran communist to Jorge Semprun at Buchenwald: "C"est l"art et la maniere de toujours retomber sur ces pattes, mon vieux!" The most famous anecdotal definition is that provided by the veteran communist to Jorge Semprun at Buchenwald: "C"est l"art et la maniere de toujours retomber sur ces pattes, mon vieux!"
16 Graziosi, "New Interpretation." Graziosi, "New Interpretation."
17 See, generally, Haslam, See, generally, Haslam, Collective Security Collective Security; Furet, Pa.s.se Pa.s.se; and Brown, Rise and Fall. Rise and Fall.
18 These numbers will be elucidated in this and the following chapter. These numbers will be elucidated in this and the following chapter.
19 On the dialectics involved, see Burrin, On the dialectics involved, see Burrin, Fascisme Fascisme, n.a.z.isme n.a.z.isme, autoritarisme autoritarisme, 202, 209. See also, generally, Weber, Hollow Years Hollow Years. On Blum, see Judt, Burden of Responsibility. Burden of Responsibility.
20 Haslam, Haslam, Collective Security Collective Security, 120-121. On the Soviet press, see Schlogel, Terror Terror, 136-137. See also, generally, Beevor, Battle for Spain. Battle for Spain. On the essential point, I am following Furet, On the essential point, I am following Furet, Pa.s.se. Pa.s.se.
21 Orwell, Orwell, Homage Homage, 53-64. Quotation: Schlogel, Terror Terror, 148. See also Brown, Rise and Fall Rise and Fall, 89.
22 On 11 May, see Kuromiya, "Anti-Russian," 1427. On 11 May, see Kuromiya, "Anti-Russian," 1427.
23 Quotation: Kuromiya, "Notatka," 133, also 119. Quotation: Kuromiya, "Notatka," 133, also 119.
24 Levine, Levine, In Search of Sugihara In Search of Sugihara, 13-89; Kuromiya, Midzy Warszaw a Tokio Midzy Warszaw a Tokio, 160-175; Siriol Colley, Incident. Incident.
25 Haslam a.n.a.lyzes China within the Popular Front framework; see Haslam a.n.a.lyzes China within the Popular Front framework; see East East, 64-70. On Xinjiang, see Millward, Eurasian Crossroads Eurasian Crossroads, 206-207. On the "Long March," see Brown, Rise and Fall Rise and Fall, 100.
26 See Kuromiya, See Kuromiya, Stalin Stalin, 136.
27 Quotation: McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 121. Quotation: McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 121.
28 Khlevniuk, "Objectives"; Kuromiya, Khlevniuk, "Objectives"; Kuromiya, Stalin Stalin, 118-119.
29 Quotation: Kuromiya, Quotation: Kuromiya, Stalin Stalin, 134, also 101.
30 On the history of the troika, see Wheatcroft, "Ma.s.s Killings," 126-139. For general introductions to the state police, see Andrew, On the history of the troika, see Wheatcroft, "Ma.s.s Killings," 126-139. For general introductions to the state police, see Andrew, KGB KGB; and Dziak, Chekisty. Chekisty.
31 Getty, Getty, Yezhov Yezhov, 140; Kuromiya, Stalin Stalin, 116.
32 On Yezhov"s a.s.sociates and their methods, see Wheatcroft, "Agency," 38-40. For Stalin"s solicitude about Yezhov"s health, see Getty, On Yezhov"s a.s.sociates and their methods, see Wheatcroft, "Agency," 38-40. For Stalin"s solicitude about Yezhov"s health, see Getty, Yezhov Yezhov, 216.
33 Quotation: Haslam, Quotation: Haslam, Collective Security Collective Security, 129. For Bukharin"s threat, see Kuromiya, Stalin Stalin, 83.
34 Quotation: Brown, Quotation: Brown, Rise and Fall Rise and Fall, 122. There were of course exceptions, such as Antoni Sonimski; see Sh.o.r.e, Caviar and Ashes Caviar and Ashes, 150. On fascism and anti-fascism, see Furet, Pa.s.se. Pa.s.se.
35 Werth, Werth, Terreur Terreur, 282. See also Kuromiya, Stalin Stalin, 121. The theme of strength in weakness was developed by Furet, Pa.s.se. Pa.s.se.
36 Orwell, Orwell, Homage Homage, 145-149, at 149. See also Furet, Pa.s.se Pa.s.se, 296, 301, 306; and Haslam, Collective Security Collective Security, 133.
37 56,209 is the number of executions remaining after the subtraction: of those in the national actions (see next chapter) and the kulak action from the total 681,692 executions carried out in the Great Terror of 1937-1938. I provide a general figure because slightly different totals for the kulak action circulate; see Jansen, 56,209 is the number of executions remaining after the subtraction: of those in the national actions (see next chapter) and the kulak action from the total 681,692 executions carried out in the Great Terror of 1937-1938. I provide a general figure because slightly different totals for the kulak action circulate; see Jansen, Executioner Executioner, 75. On the Red Army generals, see Wieczorkiewicz, acuch acuch, 296. This is a fundamental work on the military purges.
38 Evans, Evans, Power Power, 21-22.
39 Ibid., 34, 39; Sh.o.r.e, Ibid., 34, 39; Sh.o.r.e, Information Information, 31, 37.
40 On Himmler"s rise, see Longerich, On Himmler"s rise, see Longerich, Himmler. Himmler. On the police structures, see Westermann, "Ideological Soldiers," 45. I am simplifying the situation considerably by not discussing the federal structure of the German state. This, too, was seen by Himmler as a problem to be overcome. The police inst.i.tutions noted here will be discussed further in Chapters 5, 6, and 7. On the police structures, see Westermann, "Ideological Soldiers," 45. I am simplifying the situation considerably by not discussing the federal structure of the German state. This, too, was seen by Himmler as a problem to be overcome. The police inst.i.tutions noted here will be discussed further in Chapters 5, 6, and 7.
41 Evans, Evans, Power Power, 627; Lee, Dictatorships Dictatorships, 172.
42 These killing actions by German police are the subjects of Chapters 6 and 7. These killing actions by German police are the subjects of Chapters 6 and 7.
43 Compare Wheatcroft, "Ma.s.s Killing," 139. Compare Wheatcroft, "Ma.s.s Killing," 139.
44 Quotations: Baberowski, Quotations: Baberowski, Feind Feind, 758-759.
45 Werth, Werth, Terreur Terreur, 280; Viola, Forgotten Gulag Forgotten Gulag, 195.
46 On religious faith, see McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 124; and Binner, "S etoj," 181-183. On religious faith, see McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 124; and Binner, "S etoj," 181-183.
47 Shearer, "Social Disorder," 527-531, quotation at 531. Shearer, "Social Disorder," 527-531, quotation at 531.
48 On the Siberian Terror, see Ablaej, "Die ROVS-Operation," 287-298; Baberowski, On the Siberian Terror, see Ablaej, "Die ROVS-Operation," 287-298; Baberowski, Terror Terror, 189-190; and Kuromiya, "Accounting," 93.
49 Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 561-562; Werth, Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 561-562; Werth, Terreur Terreur, 283. On "an extra thousand," Jansen, Executioner Executioner, 82, 87.
50 For "once and for all," see Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 565, also 567. For the cited numbers, see Nikol"s"kyi, "Represyvna," 93. For "once and for all," see Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 565, also 567. For the cited numbers, see Nikol"s"kyi, "Represyvna," 93.
51 Vashlin, Vashlin, Terror Terror, 38. For "better too far . . . ," see Baberowski, Terror Terror, 192.
52 Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 565-568. Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 565-568.
53 Ibid., 567. Ibid., 567.
54 Ibid., 568. On the latrine incident, see Michniuk, "Przeciwko Polakom," 118. See also Weissberg, Ibid., 568. On the latrine incident, see Michniuk, "Przeciwko Polakom," 118. See also Weissberg, Wielka czystka Wielka czystka, 293. For the signing of blank pages, see McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 127.
55 Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 571-577. Sometimes Stalin"s orders were very local and precise; for examples, see Kuz"niatsou, Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 571-577. Sometimes Stalin"s orders were very local and precise; for examples, see Kuz"niatsou, Kanveer Kanveer, 72-73. Some 1,825 prisoners of Solovki would eventually be shot.
56 On Omsk, see Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 657-580. On the sentencing of 1,301 people in a single night, see McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 129. See also Khlevniuk, On Omsk, see Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 657-580. On the sentencing of 1,301 people in a single night, see McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 129. See also Khlevniuk, Gulag Gulag, 150.
57 For quotation and details on the execution techniques, see McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 130, 131; and Schlogel, For quotation and details on the execution techniques, see McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 130, 131; and Schlogel, Terror Terror, 602, 618. On the explosives, see Gregory, Terror Terror, 71.
58 On the shooting of 35,454 people, see Junge, On the shooting of 35,454 people, see Junge, Vertikal" Vertikal", 201. On the remaining numbers, see Binner, "S etoj," 207. On the camps, see Werth, Terreur Terreur, 285; and Khlevniuk, Gulag Gulag, 332. On the elderly, see Nikol"s"kyi, "Represyvna," 99. On the shooting of thirty-five deaf and dumb people," see Schlogel, Terror Terror, 624; McLoughlin, "Ma.s.s Operations," 136; and Binner, "Ma.s.senmord," 590.
59 On the events of December and February, see Nikol"skij, "Kulakenoperation," 623; and Nikol"s"kyi, "Represyvna," 100. On Leplevskii"s interpretations of the categories of Order 00447, see apoval, "Behandlung," 339, 341. On the arrests of 40,530 people, see Nikol"s"kyi, "Represyvna," 153. On the 23,650 people added to the death quota, see apoval, "Behandlung," 343. For the figures 70,868 and 35,563 and 830, see Junge, On the events of December and February, see Nikol"skij, "Kulakenoperation," 623; and Nikol"s"kyi, "Represyvna," 100. On Leplevskii"s interpretations of the categories of Order 00447, see apoval, "Behandlung," 339, 341. On the arrests of 40,530 people, see Nikol"s"kyi, "Represyvna," 153. On the 23,650 people added to the death quota, see apoval, "Behandlung," 343. For the figures 70,868 and 35,563 and 830, see Junge, Vertikal" Vertikal" , 533. For the figures 1,102 and 1,226, see Nikol"skij, "Kulakenoperation," 634-635. , 533. For the figures 1,102 and 1,226, see Nikol"skij, "Kulakenoperation," 634-635.
60 Stroski, Stroski, Represje Represje, 243. For discussion, see Weiner, Making Sense. Making Sense.
61 Pasternak made this general point in Pasternak made this general point in Dr. Zhivago. Dr. Zhivago.
62 Gurianov, "Obzor," 202. Gurianov, "Obzor," 202.
63 Goeschel, Goeschel, Concentration Camps Concentration Camps, 26-27. Perhaps 5,000-15,000 people were sent to concentration camps for h.o.m.os.e.xuality, of whom perhaps half died by the end of the Second World War; see Evans, Third Reich at War Third Reich at War, 535.
64 Goeschel, Goeschel, Concentration Camps Concentration Camps, 4, 20, 21, 27; Evans, Power Power, 87. The argument about the swinging pendulum of nationality policy is powerfully formulated by Martin in Affirmative Action Empire. Affirmative Action Empire.
65 On the 267 sentences in n.a.z.i Germany, see Evans, On the 267 sentences in n.a.z.i Germany, see Evans, Power Power, 69-70.
CHAPTER 3: NATIONAL TERROR.
1 Martin, "Origins," brings a.n.a.lytical rigor to the national operations. Quotation: Jansen, Martin, "Origins," brings a.n.a.lytical rigor to the national operations. Quotation: Jansen, Executioner Executioner, 96; see also Baberowski, Terror Terror, 198.
2 For greater detail on the Polish line, see Snyder, For greater detail on the Polish line, see Snyder, Sketches Sketches, 115-132.
3 Snyder, Snyder, Sketches Sketches, 115-116. The "Polish Military Organization" idea seems to have originated in 1929, when a Soviet agent was placed in charge of the security commission of the Communist Party of Poland; see Stroski, Represje Represje, 210.
4 Stroski, Stroski, Represje Represje, 211-213. On Sochacki, see Kieszczyski, "Represje," 202. For further details on Wandurski, see Sh.o.r.e, Caviar and Ashes. Caviar and Ashes. At least one important Polish communist did return from the Soviet Union and work for the Poles: his book is Regua, At least one important Polish communist did return from the Soviet Union and work for the Poles: his book is Regua, Historia. Historia.
5 On January 1934, see Stroski, On January 1934, see Stroski, Represje Represje, 226-227. For the motives and numbers of later deportations, see Kupczak, Polacy Polacy, 324.
6 On the first cue, see Kuromiya, On the first cue, see Kuromiya, Voices Voices, 221. For "know everything," see Stroski, Represje Represje, 2336-227. See also Morris, "Polish Terror," 756-757.
7 Stroski, Stroski, Represje Represje, 227; Snyder, Sketches Sketches, 119-120.
8 Nikol"s"kyi, Nikol"s"kyi, Represyvna Represyvna, 337; Stroski, Represje Represje, 227. For details on Balyts"kyi, see Shapoval, "Balyts"kyi," 69-74. A similar fate awaited Stanisaw Kosior, the former head of the Ukrainian section of the party, who was Polish. He too had played a major role in the starvation campaign of 1933, and he too was executed as a Polish spy.
9 For further discussion of the origins of the Polish operation, see Rubl"ov "Represii proty poliakiv," 126; Paczkowski, "Pologne," 400; and Stroski, For further discussion of the origins of the Polish operation, see Rubl"ov "Represii proty poliakiv," 126; Paczkowski, "Pologne," 400; and Stroski, Represje Represje, 220.
10 For the text of Order 00485 see For the text of Order 00485 see Leningradskii martirolog Leningradskii martirolog, 454-456.
11 For some further examples, see Gilmore, For some further examples, see Gilmore, Defying Dixie. Defying Dixie.
12 Petrov, "Polish Operation," 154; Nikol"s"kyi, Petrov, "Polish Operation," 154; Nikol"s"kyi, Represyvna Represyvna, 105. Figures on representatives of national minorities are given later in the chapter.
13 On the "suppliers," see Kuromiya, On the "suppliers," see Kuromiya, Stalin Stalin, 118. On the Polish diplomats, see Snyder, Sketches Sketches, 121-127. For the date on the central committee, see Kieszczyski, "Represje," 198. On the experiences of Polish communists in the USSR, Budzyska"s Strzpy Strzpy is invaluable. is invaluable.
14 Quotation: Petrov, "Pol"skaia operatsiia," 23. The phone book anecdote is in Brown, Quotation: Petrov, "Pol"skaia operatsiia," 23. The phone book anecdote is in Brown, No Place No Place, 158.
15 Stroski, Stroski, Represje Represje, 240.
16 Petrov, "Pol"skaia operatsiia," 28; Werth, Petrov, "Pol"skaia operatsiia," 28; Werth, Terreur Terreur, 294.
17 Quotation and number: Naumov, Quotation and number: Naumov, NKVD NKVD, 299-300. For examples, see Stroski, Represje Represje, 223, 246.
18 On the Juriewicz family, see Gbocki, "Pierwszy," 158-166, at 164. On the Juriewicz family, see Gbocki, "Pierwszy," 158-166, at 164.
19 On the Makowski family, see Gbowski, "Pierwszy," 166-172. For the figure 6,597, see Petrov, "Polish Operation," 168. On the Makowski family, see Gbowski, "Pierwszy," 166-172. For the figure 6,597, see Petrov, "Polish Operation," 168.
20 Ilic, "Leningrad," 1522. Ilic, "Leningrad," 1522.
21 Awakened: Dzwonkowski, Awakened: Dzwonkowski, G.o.d G.o.d, 236. Black raven Black raven appears in Polish and Russian, appears in Polish and Russian, black maria black maria in Russian. For attestation to in Russian. For attestation to soul destroyer soul destroyer, which was later used in reference to German gas vans, see Schlogel, Terror Terror, 615. On Kuntsevo, see Vashlin, Terror Terror, 40, 44.
22 On the sources of Polish borderland ident.i.ty, see Snyder, On the sources of Polish borderland ident.i.ty, see Snyder, Reconstruction of Nations. Reconstruction of Nations. The redefinitions of Soviet Poles is the central subject of Brown, The redefinitions of Soviet Poles is the central subject of Brown, No Place. No Place.
23 On the national purge, see Naumov, On the national purge, see Naumov, NKVD NKVD, 262-266; flower quotation at 266. Berman quotation: Michniuk, "Przeciwko Polakow," 115. On the 218 writers, see Mironowicz, Biaoru Biaoru, 88-89. See also Junge, Vertikal" Vertikal", 624.
24 For further discussion of this method of killing, see Goujon, "Kurapaty"; and Marples, "Kurapaty," 513-517. See also Ziokowska, "Kurapaty," 47-49. For further discussion of this method of killing, see Goujon, "Kurapaty"; and Marples, "Kurapaty," 513-517. See also Ziokowska, "Kurapaty," 47-49.
25 For the figure of 17,772 sentences, see Petrov, "Pol"skaia operatsiia," 168. On the total number of deaths (61,501), see Morris, "Polish Terror," 759. For the figure of 17,772 sentences, see Petrov, "Pol"skaia operatsiia," 168. On the total number of deaths (61,501), see Morris, "Polish Terror," 759.
26 Jansen, Jansen, Yezhov Yezhov, 258. On Uspenskii, compare Parrish, Lesser Terror Lesser Terror, 6, 11; and Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror Freedom and Terror, 240.
27 Werth, Werth, Terreur Terreur, 292.
28 On Moszyska and Angielczyk, see Kuromiya, On Moszyska and Angielczyk, see Kuromiya, Voices Voices, 49-51, 221-223.