Despite popular claims that 70 percent of all information is processed by means of nonverbal unconscious channels, the ability to speak and interact in the language of your business partner is much more impressive. Though this book is about nonverbal communication, verbal or linguistic abilities cannot be discounted. Language is not only the product of culture but also its best transmitter. By learning another language, you become exposed to new categories of thinking and reasoning. Some languages also seem better for certain functions. Hence stories about George III who purportedly spoke to his horse in German, his cook in French and his lover in Italian.
It seems that when language is shared, cultural communication runs more smoothly. The reverse is also true: lack of linguistic abilities can impair your business interactions. Harzing and Feely (2008) reviewed the topic of language barriers and their implications for international business. Better linguistic abilities are widely used in organizations as a source of power and means of advancement, especially in multinational companies. Language is also an influential in-group/out-group marker: are you one of us or one of them? It immediately establishes affiliation, thus creating or breaking boundaries in organizations. It can either reinforce existing links and maintain alliances, or impair relationships and impede the work.
So, when language skills are simply not there, we have to rely on gestures and their interpretations much more. Sometimes it is not words, but rather the manner in which they are spoken and what accompanies them that is of more significance. When stakes are high and emotions intense, especially in business negotiations, body language is the source of information to be taken into account.
Still, there is a way to make up for your lack of foreign-language knowledge: by hiring simultaneous translators. These are the intermediaries, the uniting bridge between the players in the game. And they are ever in demand, partly as a function of the remorseless growth of the European community and world trade in general. So we need people to translate Czech into Dutch, Finnish into Portuguese, and Polish into Greek, for example.
Translators of the written word are often scholars, but translators of speech need to be actors as well. They have various tasks. Sometimes they shadow their (literally) "great leader". So, in the old days it was not uncommon to see the American and Russian translators just behind their bosses, subtly, "sotto voce" and almost ventriloquently informing their man what the other had said. Interestingly, the leaders did not look at their co-linguist informants. They smiled, nodded and nonverbally looked at their opposite number directly.
Translators get the gist of what is being said, but sometimes they cannot copy how it is said. Can they get mocking irony, and if so, how is it translated? Americans cannot understand British irony, understatement or humour. How would a translator convey these? Watch a dubbed favorite movie with a known star. The dubbing actor may do timings well but quality of voice is crucial. The chuckle, the sardonic laugh, characteristic patterns get changed and it makes a difference.
It is no wonder, therefore, that presidents look at each other while translators whisper in their ears. What is being said is important, but no less than how and when it is said. And for most it is less worrying that things are lost in translation than what they do not want, understand or intend is transmitted.
Cultural values and motivations.
In the updated version of their cla.s.sic book, Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) proposed five main dimensions that are very useful navigation tools around cultural differences: individualismcollectivism; highand low-power distance; femininity and masculinity; strong and weak uncertainty avoidance; and long- or short-term orientation. These dimensions can be used to gain a snapshot view into values and drives of a particular society. Once you know where the country stands on these dimensions, you can deal with the members of the culture more successfully, antic.i.p.ate their expectations, appreciate their values, and adjust your verbal and nonverbal behavior in a timely and appropriate manner.
Individualismcollectivism This refers to the extent to which the society places importance on individual values and benefits or those of the extended group (see Table 4.4).
Working practices of individualist countries: * Speaking one"s mind and freedom of expression is highly valued.
* Healthy debate is encouraged between all members of the group regardless of position or status.
* Communication is "low context": what is meant needs to be verbalized, not left to conjecture.
* Silence in a conversation is looked upon as "socially inadequate".
* Conflict of interest is generally not appropriate and should be stated before any work is begun.
* Workplace relationships are based on the idea of "business transaction".
TABLE 4.4 Countries" score on the Individualism dimension by region of the world Working practices of low individualism (collectivist) countries: * A "one for all and all for one" att.i.tude.
* Doing business in collectivist countries usually involves building personal ties and relationships and earning trust.
* Direct confrontation should be avoided; social harmony is much more desirable.
* Allegiance to the family and its interests is valued more than self-interest.
* Consequently, practices of nepotism and favoritism, though often outlawed, still exist and influence decision-making to a certain degree.
* Communication is said to be high-context: the meaning behind the communication is derived from the social context and situation.
* Silence in social situations is acceptable.
The individualismcollectivism dimension has a straightforward application to, for example, international management practices. An interesting piece of research showed that people from a collectivist background performed best when a given task was defined in terms of a group goal and each member worked anonymously, while a similarly defined task resulted in decreased output by employees from individualist countries. These people performed best when working individually and their merit was similarly recognized. These conditions were, on the other hand, counterproductive for employees from collectivist countries. It is clear that people are motivated differently, and should be a.s.sessed and rewarded accordingly. Thus, Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) point out that management in collectivist countries is "management of groups", while governance in individualistic societies is "management of individuals".
TABLE 4.5 Countries" score on Power Distance dimension by region of the world Power distance index This concerns such work features as decision-making style, status, power symbolism and hierarchy (see Table 4.5).
Working practices of high-power-distance countries: * Structured, vertical hierarchies.
* Autocratic decision-making style.
* Superiorsubordinate relationships are highly unequal, both in terms of pay and of status.
* Greater and closer supervision is expected.
* Possessions aim to reflect rank visually.
Working practices of low-power-distance countries: * Flat hierarchies.
* Consultative decision-making style.
* The gap between salaries of top and lower workers is small.
* Discretionary autonomy in work tasks, less supervision.
* Expensive material possessions by top-level employees are discouraged.
A country"s position on this dimension is especially useful when one needs to choose an appropriate level of contact in foreign organizations. It can also be helpful to determine what kind of support and authority is expected from the management in different countries. One can see power distance in the way people of different rank address each other. Power is usually manifested nonverbally. Dress often is a very clear indicator of rank.
MasculinityFemininity Here we are concerned with the degree of distinction or overlap between masculine and feminine gender roles (see Table 4.6). Masculinity is defined by such qualities as being tough, forceful and concerned about material possessions, while feminine values are a.s.sociated with being humble, caring and concerned about quality of life.
Working practices of masculine countries: * Concern for work.
* Merit-based rewards.
* Conflict is resolved through compet.i.tion/fighting.
* a.s.sertiveness, ambition and healthy aggression are highly desirable traits.
* "Live to work" att.i.tude.
Working practices of feminine countries: * Concern for people.
* Needs-based rewards.
* Compromise is sought when in conflict.
* Differences are tolerated and respected.
* "Work to live" att.i.tude.
TABLE 4.6 Countries" score on Masculinity dimension by region of the world This dimension is useful for pinning down a country with regard to its preferred negotiation style, conflict resolution and expected gender work behavior. a.s.sertiveness and force are displayed in masculine countries; showing respect and reservation in feminine ones. Inevitable malefemale interactions at work are different in masculine and feminine cultures. They are more "stereotyped" in the former, with males being dominant and females submissive.
Uncertainty avoidance This dimension reflects the degree of tolerance of ambiguous situations and need for direction (see Table 4.7).
Working practices of strong Uncertainty Avoidance countries: * Longer-term employment.
* More anxiety and need for expressiveness.
* Traditional, ritualistic behaviors supported by formal structures.
* Expertise is valued.
TABLE 4.7 Countries" score on Uncertainty Avoidance dimension by region of the world Working practices of weak Uncertainty Avoidance countries: * Shorter-term employment.
* Less anxiety and need for expressiveness.
* Intrinsic rule following.
* Common sense and general knowledge is valued.
Knowing a country"s position on this dimension is valuable for learning how rigid or flexible are its working practices (schedules, plans, deadlines), rule-following behavior, and differences in att.i.tudes to time. People follow rules and laws. You can see this in the street: to what extent people obey or violate traffic laws. The same is true inside organizations, which are often beset by numerous health and safety rules. Low tolerance national and corporate cultures have more rules and follow them more closely.
TABLE 4.8 Countries" score on Long-term Orientation dimension by region of the world Long-term orientation Refers to the degree to which a particular culture is future-orientated and values diligence, prudence and persistence; or present- or pastorientated with regard to traditions and social requirements (see Table 4.8).
Working practices of Long-term Orientated countries: * Results are slow.
* Patience is a virtue.
* Saving is encouraged.
* Personal networks are important a.s.sets at work.
Working practices of Short-term Orientated countries: * Results are quick, or better, immediate.
* Impatience is a virtue.
* Spending is encouraged.
* Meritocracy.
Be prepared for quick turn-around and fast decision-making in shortterm orientated cultures; short(er)-term profit goals are regarded as a valuable pursuit. In contrast, time is sequential in long-term orientated countries. The emphasis is on tradition, conservation and continuation. Time is viewed as a treasure, not a pressure.
The five facets described above reflect the basics of all variations across the globe. Of course, it should also be stated that countries" scores on these dimensions reflect a general inclination towards either end of the scale. Thus it would also be true to claim that some members of collectivist societies, for example, tend to be highly individualistic, or that some citizens of strong uncertainty avoidance countries are more inclined to risk-taking. However, these are deviations from the norm and consequently represent a minority.
These dimensions serve as practical guides to general differences between countries. They paint a broad-brush picture of countries" behaviors and motivations as applied to the world of work and business. It is best to take into account all five scales to gain a clear understanding of how to do business in a particular culture. Armed with this knowledge, it is relatively easy to adjust your body language to the expectations of the country you are visiting.
Cultural differences in nonverbal communication.
Countries differ in their att.i.tudes towards time, greetings, emphasis on polite etiquette, and tradition. They vary in the degree to which they show emotion through facial expressions. Some cultures (for example, Saudi Arabia) traditionally place higher emphasis on what is not being said, and those with such cultural traditions pay more attention to nonverbal clues such as pauses, gestures and so on. Others (the USA, the UK, Germany) are bold and straightforward in their communication, and appreciate their business partners being direct and honest. Nonverbal aspect of communication in such countries is regarded secondary to the spoken message.
Greetings There are few areas where your body language can make or break a relationship. It all starts with an introduction, and, as easy as it sounds, traps await you at this initial stage. You need to know how people are addressed in a particular culture what is an appropriate t.i.tle; should one use a first name or surname, or both; and in case of so many foreign-sounding names, which one is which?
Consider body language differences in greetings as well: in parts of Europe it is appropriate to bow with a slight click of the heels; in j.a.pan, the deep respectful bow is required; the gallant hand-kiss is used in France; the bear-hug is popular in Russia; Thai and Indian people use a peaceful "hands-together in prayer" gesture; and Anglo-Saxons use a hand-shake. Interestingly, greeting behavior may also vary between the regions of a country. In the south-east of France, for example, three kisses on the cheeks is the norm, while in northern France, four kisses are more appropriate. Number of kisses can also reflect status or affiliation. Indeed, the form of greeting can also be an indicator of rank, familiarity, or type of meeting.
Expressing agreement There are generally two kinds of gestures that convey agreement. One involves different movements of the head; and the other, of the hands. Desmond Morris (2002) provides a description of five different types of head gestures which can say "I agree" or "I disagree" with you: 1. Head nod: gradual upward and downward movement placing more emphasis on the downward stroke. It is believed to be a universal sign for agreement, which has been recorded in most cultures and tribal societies. What is more, even children born deaf and blind still exhibit it. Morris explains the ubiquity of this gesture by pointing out the submissive connotation of this gesture as in bowing.
2. Head shake: from left to right in equal proportions. This gesture is said to correspond to the way infants refuse breast or food when they are full, hence always means no in most cultures.
3. Head twist an incomplete head shake, with the head turning brusquely to one side and returning to the upright position. Carries a disagreement or negative meaning.
4. Head sway: while in most cultures this gesture means uncertainty or lack of agreement on the issue, in Bulgaria it happens to mean "Yes". Morris speculates that this peculiarity arouse out of verbal expressions for agreement in Bulgarian language, such as "I will give you my ear", which later literally became a sign of affirmation.
5. Head toss: or an "inverted head nod" means "No" in Greece and former Ancient Greek provinces (still!), especially when done together with eye and eyebrow raising.
Hand gestures expressing affirmation are said to be the subst.i.tutes for using the head. One of the most universal signs of agreement is a handshake which corresponds to head nod. A "No" can also be expressed through shaking your finger or the whole palm of your hand from side to side. Parents, for example, often show that to children in disapproval of their behavior. A palm wag also allows a person to distance and block themselves from the suggestion being made. A person can also close his or her eyes in disagreement, literally saying that they are not taking anything in. The j.a.panese are famous for never expressing their disagreement directly. For them, this ruins the harmony of a relationship. They give elusive "Maybe" answers instead of a direct "No".
Embarra.s.sment.
Embarra.s.sment is also one if the universally felt emotions concerned with the feeling of doing something socially inappropriate, breaching the rules of etiquette. It is felt and displayed across the world in a similar manner: by blushing, suddenly dropping the smile, lowering the eyes and head.
On the other hand, it has been revealed that some societies control their facial expressions more than others. As such, Russians, followed closely by South Koreans and j.a.panese, come out on top in the battle of facial-muscle control, while Americans take the bottom place in the hierarchy.
The concept of "face" appears to be particularly important in business dealings with certain countries, such as China, j.a.pan and countries of the Middle East. Members of these traditional, collectivist societies try to avoid showing their weaknesses at all costs. Losing face by making a mistake, for example, means losing respect and hardearned status. However, it is also true to say that no one in any sort of position of power would like to be challenged directly in front of subordinates. Thus, while face-saving might be a special concept in some cultural encounters, it is just as relevant in most Western business dealings.
Time.
Time is viewed differently across the world. For some it is flexible, fluctuating and cyclical; while others see it as rigid, constant and linear. Att.i.tudes to time are of particular interest in business. One of the biggest pressures and advantages in any negotiations is time.
In the West, we are always short of time. Deadlines have to be met, delays are regarded as a sign of either lack of interest or ability, both of which are good enough reasons to turn the business down. However, Southern European countries, such as Spain, Italy and Portugal, and their former colonies in Africa and South America, have kept a different sense of time. It is stretchable, non-pressurizing and adjustable to the needs of individuals. Given this, decision-making takes longer. For the j.a.panese, among others, matters of importance require no rush, and they take their time making up their minds. The more valuable the deal, the more time the j.a.panese are likely to take to reach a conclusion.
Obviously, these differences are a natural source of conflict. It is hard to appreciate a system of time so different from the one a person is used to, let alone to abide by its rules. Books on cultural communication offer many examples of how misunderstanding the att.i.tude to time in another culture has resulted in lost business opportunities, contracts and investments. Time differences also result in the degree of mult.i.tasking that is possible, and how much concentration and attention is given to individual activities.
Overall, some countries can be characterized as time-bound (Germany, UK, Switzerland and Scandinavia, for example), whereas others are time-blind (such as Spain, Portugal, Greece). Time-bound societies emphasize schedules, deadlines, time-wasting, time-keeping, a fast pace of life. Time-blind societies are more relaxed and casual about time. Hence what is considered to be late in one society is not necessarily so in another. As societies become more time-bound, they have a more compet.i.tive att.i.tude to time, and so "fast" is better. Hence fast-living, fasteating, fast-tempo, manic-type work behavior emphasizing "catching up" and not being "left behind". Time-bound societies see time as linear, and societies that are time-blind, see it as cyclical. Time-bound societies centre work around clocks, schedules, delivery dates, agendas, deadlines. Confusion between the two att.i.tudes can make for serious misunderstandings at work.
Collett (1994) points out various other time-related distinctions that relate to the world of work. The first is the time-blind culture"s ability to distinguish between "sacred" and "profane" time. The former is for eating, family and sleeping, while profane time is used for everything else. Hence, in Spain, meetings can easily be interrupted: the time is not dedicated solely to the meeting. There is also the distinction between monochronic and polychronic time. Time-bound societies are monochronic people do one thing at a time, while time-blind societies are polychronic, happily ignoring appointments, schedules, deadlines and tolerating interruptions. There is also the issue of time-orientation: past, present and future. Thus the British are thought to be interested more in the distant and recent past, and therefore do not invest much in the future, whereas the Germans have a longer view of the future, investing in basic research, education and training.
The understating and use of time is crucial in business. Not only does it lead to how, when, where and why work is done, but also people with conflicting ideas and theories may have very different conceptions and expectations, which can lead to misunderstanding and animosity.
Why do these differences exist?
There are many reasons why bodily communication differs from one culture to another. It may be in part a result of language usage: the number and subtlety of words for a feeling or an action must affect the necessity or preference for nonverbal behavior in expressing that feeling or action. The social etiquette of people sets out precise rules regarding nonverbal behavior. Books of manners set out very clearly how people are to behave. Nonverbal communication is also seen in the structure of society and in its subcultures. The lower-status groups have prescribed and proscribed ways of dealing with those from higher groups. Even differences in technology between one society and another can influence nonverbal behavior. The use of the telephone, for example, may increase sensitivity to tones of voice.
Interpersonal distance, eye gaze and bodily contact are culturedependent, as are taboos on exposing parts of the body, including the palm of the hand, the sole of the foot and so on. Two strong, isolated cultures, such as those of the j.a.panese and the Arabs, may have very different, indeed opposite, languages of nonverbal communication.