This indication of popular feeling was enough for the local authorities at Lien-chou, the district city, and the tax was changed so as to fall on the foreign opium, the illicit native supply being discreetly ignored, and all rioters forgiven."
So much for taxation. Let us take an instance of interference with prescriptive rights, in connection with the great incorruptible viceroy, Chang Chih-tung, to whom we are all so much indebted for his att.i.tude during the Siege of the Legations in 1900.
Ten years ago, when starting his iron-works at Wuchang, in the province of Hupeh, he ordered the subst.i.tution of a drawbridge over a creek for the old bridge which had stood there from time immemorial, the object being to let steamers pa.s.s freely up and down. Unfortunately, the old bridge was destroyed before the new one was ready. What was the result?
"The people rushed to the Yamen, and insisted by deputation and ma.s.s-brawling on the restoration of the bridge.
"Finally, the viceroy thought it worth his while to issue a rhyming proclamation, a.s.suring the people that what he was doing was for their good, and justifying his several schemes."
Yet Chang Chih-tung always has been, and is still, one of the strongest officials who ever sat upon a viceroy"s throne.
In November, 1882, there was a very serious military riot in Hankow, on the opposite side of the Yang-tsze to Wuchang. It arose out of a report that four soldiers had been arrested and were to be secretly beheaded the same night. This rising might have a.s.sumed very serious dimensions, but for the prompt submission of the viceroy to the soldiers" demands.
As it was, the whole city was thrown into a state of the utmost alarm.
Few of the inhabitants slept through the night. The streets were filled with a terror-stricken population, expecting at any moment to hear that the prison doors had been forced, and the criminals let loose to join the soldiers in their determination to kill the officials, plunder the treasury, and sack the city. Many citizens are said to have fled from the place; and the sudden rush upon the _cash_ shops, to convert paper notes into silver, brought some of them to the verge of bankruptcy.
I have recorded, under March, 1891, a case in which several Manchus were sentenced by the magistrate of c.h.i.n.kiang, at the instance of the local general, to a bambooing for rowdy behaviour. This is what followed:-
"The friends of the prisoners, to the number of about three hundred, a.s.sembled at the city temple, vowing vengeance on the magistrate and general. They proceeded to the yamen of the general, wrecked the wall and part of the premises, and put the city in an uproar. The magistrate fled with his family to the Tao-t"ai"s yamen, where two hundred regular troops were sent to protect him against the fury of the Manchus, who threatened his life."
This is what happened to another magistrate in Kiangsu. He had imprisoned a tax-collector for being in arrears with his money; and the tax-collector"s wife, frantic with rage, rushed to the magistracy and demanded his release. Unfortunately, she was suffering from severe asthma; and this, coupled with her anger, caused her death actually in the magistrate"s court. The people then smashed and wrecked the magistracy, and pummelled and bruised the magistrate himself, who ultimately effected his escape in disguise and hid himself in a private dwelling.
Every one who has lived in China knows how dangerous are the periods when vast numbers of students congregate for the public examinations.
Here is an example.
At Canton, in June, 1880, a student took back a coat he had purchased for half a dollar at a second-hand clothes shop, and wished to have it changed. The shopkeeper gave him rather an impatient answer, and thereupon the student called in a band of his brother B.A."s to claim justice for literature. They seized a reckoning-board, or abacus, that lay on the counter, struck one of the a.s.sistants in the shop, and drew blood. The shopkeeper then beat an alarm on his gong, and summoned friends and neighbours to the rescue. Word was at once pa.s.sed to bands of students in the neighbourhood, who promptly obeyed the call of a distressed comrade, and blows were delivered right and left. The shopkeepers summoned the district magistrate to the scene. Upon his arrival he ordered several of the literary ringleaders, who had been seized and bound by the shopkeepers, to be carried off and impounded.
In the course of the evening he sentenced them to be beaten. A body of more than a hundred students then went to his yamen and demanded the immediate release of the prisoners. The magistrate grew nervous, yielded to their threats, and sent several of the offending students home in sedan-chairs. The magistrate then seized the a.s.sistants in the shop where the row began and sentenced them to be beaten on the mouth.
Next morning ten thousand shops were closed in the city and suburbs. The shopkeepers said they could not do business under such an administration of law. In the course of the morning a large meeting of the students was held in a college adjoining the examination hall. The district magistrate went out to confer with them. The students cracked his gong, and shattered his sedan-chair with showers of stones, and then prodded him with their fans and umbrellas, and bespattered him with dirt as his followers tried to carry him away on their shoulders. He was quite seriously hurt.
The prefect then met a large deputation of the shopkeepers in their guild-house in the course of the day, and expressed his dissatisfaction at the way in which the district magistrate had acted. A settlement was thus reached, which included fireworks for the students, and business was resumed.
Any individual who is aggrieved by the action, or inaction, of a Chinese official may have immediate recourse to the following method for obtaining justice, witnessed by me twice during my residence in China, and known as "crying one"s wrongs."
Dressed in the grey sackcloth garb of a mourner, the injured party, accompanied by as many friends as he or she can collect together, will proceed to the public residence of the offending mandarin, and there howl and be otherwise objectionable, day and night, until some relief is given. The populace is invariably on the side of the wronged person; and if the wrong is deep, or the delay in righting it too long, there is always great risk of an outbreak, with the usual scene of house-wrecking and general violence.
It may now well be asked, how justice can ever be administered under such circ.u.mstances, which seem enough to paralyse authority in the presence of any evil-doer who can bring up his friends to the rescue.
To begin with, there is in China, certainly at all great centres, a large criminal population without friends,-men who have fallen from their high estate through inveterate gambling, indulgence in opium-smoking, or more rarely alcohol. No one raises a finger to protect these from the utmost vengeance of the law.
Then again, the Chinese, just as they tax themselves, so do they administer justice to themselves. Trade disputes, petty and great alike, are never carried into court, there being no recognised civil law in China beyond custom; they are settled by the guilds or trades-unions, as a rule to the satisfaction of all parties. Many criminal cases are equally settled out of court, and the offender is punished by agreement of the clan-elders or heads of families, and nothing is said; for compounding a felony is not a crime, but a virtue, in the eyes of the Chinese, who look on all litigation with aversion and contempt.
In the case of murder, however, and some forms of manslaughter, the ingrained conviction that a life should always be given for a life often outweighs any money value that could be offered, and the majesty of the law is upheld at any sacrifice.
It is not uncommon for an accused person to challenge his accuser to a kind of trial by ordeal, at the local temple.
Kneeling before the altar, at midnight, in the presence of a crowd of witnesses, the accused man will solemnly burn a sheet of paper, on which he has written, or caused to be written, an oath, totally denying his guilt, and calling upon the G.o.ds to strike him dead upon the spot, or his accuser, if either one is deviating in the slightest degree from the actual truth.
This is indeed a severe ordeal to a superst.i.tious people, whatever it may seem to us. Even the mandarins avail themselves of similar devices in cases where they are unable to clear up a mystery in the ordinary way.
In a well-known case of a murder by a gang of ruffians, the magistrate, being unable to fix the guilt of the fatal blow upon any one of the gang, told them that he was going to apply to the G.o.ds. He then caused them all to be dressed in black coats, as is usual with condemned criminals, and arranged them in a dark shed, with their faces to the wall, saying that, in response to his prayers, a demon would be sent to mark the back of the guilty man. When at length the accused were brought out of the shed, one of them actually had a white mark on his back, and he at once confessed. In order to outwit the demon he had slily placed his back against the wall, which by the magistrate"s secret orders had previously received a coat of whitewash.
I will conclude with a case which came under my own personal observation, and which first set me definitely on the track of democratic government in China.
In 1882 I was vice-consul at PaG.o.da Anchorage, a port near the famous Foochow a.r.s.enal which was bombarded by Admiral Courbet in 1884. My house and garden were on an eminence overlooking the a.r.s.enal, which was about half a mile distant. One morning, after breakfast, the head official servant came to tell me there was trouble at the a.r.s.enal. A military mandarin, employed there as superintendent of some department, had that morning early kicked his cook, a boy of seventeen, in the stomach, and the boy, a weakly lad, had died within an hour. The boy"s widowed mother was sitting by the body in the mandarin"s house, and a large crowd of workmen had formed a complete ring outside, quietly awaiting the arrival and decision of the authorities.
By five o"clock in the afternoon, a deputy had arrived from the magistracy at Foochow, twelve miles distant, empowered to hold the usual inquest on behalf of the magistrate. The inquest was duly held, and the verdict was "accidental homicide."
In shorter time than it takes me to tell the story, the deputy"s sedan-chair and paraphernalia of office were smashed to atoms. He himself was seized, his official hat and robe were torn to shreds, and he was bundled unceremoniously, not altogether unbruised, through the back door and through the ring of onlookers, into the paddy-fields beyond. Then the ring closed up again, and a low, threatening murmur broke out which I could plainly hear from my garden. There was no violence, no attempt to lynch the man; the crowd merely waited for justice. That crowd remained there all night, encircling the murderer, the victim, and the mother. Bulletins were brought to me every hour, and no one went to bed.
Meanwhile the news had reached the viceroy, and by half-past nine next morning the smoke of a steam-launch was seen away up the bends of the river. This time it bore the district magistrate himself, with instructions from the viceroy to hold a new inquest.
At about ten o"clock he landed, and was received with respectful silence. By eleven o"clock the murderer"s head was off and the crowd had dispersed.
LECTURE IV
CHINA AND ANCIENT GREECE
CHINA AND ANCIENT GREECE
The study of Chinese presents at least one advantage over the study of the Greek and Roman cla.s.sics; I might add, of Hebrew, of Syriac, and even of Sanskrit. It may be pursued for two distinct objects. The first, and most important object to many, is to acquire a practical acquaintance with a _living_ language, spoken and written by about one-third of the existing population of the earth, with a view to the extension of commercial enterprise, and to the profits and benefits which may legitimately accrue therefrom. The second is precisely that object in pursuit of which we apply ourselves so steadily to the literatures and civilisations of Greece and Rome.
Sir Richard Jebb, in his essay on "Humanism in Education," points out that even less than a hundred years ago the cla.s.sics still held a virtual monopoly, so far as literary studies were concerned, in the public schools and universities of England. "The culture which they supplied," he argues, "while limited in the sphere of its operation, had long been an efficient and vital influence, not only in forming men of letters and learning, but in training men who afterwards gained distinction in public life and in various active careers."
Long centuries had fixed so firmly in the minds of our forefathers a belief, and no doubt to some extent a justifiable belief, in the perfect character of the languages, the literatures, the arts, and some of the social and political inst.i.tutions of ancient Greece and Rome, that a century or so ago there seemed to be nothing else worth the attention of an intellectual man. The comparatively recent introduction of Sanskrit was received in the cla.s.sical world, not merely with coldness, but with strenuous opposition; and all the genius of its pioneer scholars was needed to secure the meed of recognition which it now enjoys as an important field of research. The Regius Professorship of Greek in the University of Cambridge, England, was founded in 1540; but it was not until 1867, more than three centuries later, that Sanskrit was admitted into the university curriculum. It is still impossible to gain a degree through the medium of Chinese, but signs are not wanting that the necessity for such a step will be more widely recognised in the near future.
All the material lies ready to hand. There is a written language, which for difficulty is unrivalled, polished and perfected by centuries of the minutest scholarship, until it is impossible to conceive anything more subtly artistic as a vehicle of human thought. Those mental gymnastics, of such importance in the training of youth, which were once claimed exclusively for the languages of Greece and Rome, may be performed equally well in the Chinese language. The educated cla.s.ses in China would be recognised anywhere as men of trained minds, able to carry on sustained and complex arguments without violating any of the Aristotelian canons, although as a matter of fact they never heard of Aristotle and possess no such work in all their extensive literature as a treatise on logic. The affairs of their huge empire are carried on, and in my opinion very successfully carried on-with some reservations, of course-by men who have had to get their mental gymnastics wholly and solely out of Chinese.
I am not aware that their diplomatists suffer by comparison with ours.
The Marquis Tseng and Li Hung-chang, for instance, representing opposite schools, were admitted masters of their craft, and made not a few of our own diplomatists look rather small beside them.
Speaking further of the study of the Greek and Roman cla.s.sics, Sir Richard Jebb says: "There can be no better proof that such a discipline has penetrated the mind, and has been a.s.similated, than if, in the crises of life, a man recurs to the great thoughts and images of the literature in which he has been trained, and finds there what braces and fortifies him, a comfort, an inspiration, an utterance for his deeper feelings."
Sir Richard Jebb then quotes a touching story of Lord Granville, who was President of the Council in 1762, and whose last hours were rapidly approaching. In reply to a suggestion that, considering his state of health, some important work should be postponed, he uttered the following impa.s.sioned words from the Iliad, spoken by Sarpedon to Glaucus: "Ah, friend, if, once escaped from this battle, we were for ever to be ageless and immortal, I would not myself fight in the foremost ranks, nor would I send thee into the war that giveth men renown; but now,-since ten thousand fates of death beset us every day, and these no mortal may escape or avoid,-now let us go forward."
Such was the discipline of the Greek and Roman cla.s.sics upon the mind of Lord Granville at a great crisis in his life.
Let us now turn to the story of a Chinese statesman, nourished only upon what has been too hastily stigmatised as "the dry bones of Chinese literature."