The chief merit of Stoicism is that in an age of moral degeneracy it insisted upon the necessity of integrity in all the conditions of life.
In its preference for the joys of the inner life and its scorn of the delights of sense; in its emphasis upon individual responsibility and duty; above all, in its advocacy of a common humanity and its belief in the relation of each human soul to G.o.d, Roman Stoicism, as revealed in the writings of a Seneca, an Epictetus, and a Marcus Aurelius, not only showed how high Paganism at its best could reach, but proved in a measure a preparation for Christianity, with whose practical truths it had much in common.
The affinities between Stoicism and Paulinism have been frequently pointed out, and the similarity in language and thought can scarcely be accounted for by coincidence. There are, however, elements in Stoicism which St. Paul would never have dreamt of a.s.similating. The material conception of the world, the self-conscious pride, the absence of all sense of sin, the temper of apathy, and unnatural suppression of feelings were ideas which could not but rouse the apostle"s strongest antagonism. But, on the other hand, there were characteristics of a n.o.bler order in Stoic morality which, we may well believe, Paul found ready to his hand and did not hesitate to incorporate in his teaching.
Of these we may mention, the Immanence of G.o.d, the idea of Wisdom, the conception of freedom as {44} the prerogative of the individual, and the notion of brotherhood as the goal of humanity.[7]
The Roman Stoics, notwithstanding their theoretic interest in moral questions, lived in an ideal world, and hardly attempted to bring their views into connection with the facts of life. Their philosophy was a refuge from the evil around them rather than an effort to remove it.
They seek to overcome the world by being indifferent to it. In Neo-Platonism--the last of the Greek schools of philosophy--this tendency to withdraw from life and its problems becomes still more marked. Absorption in G.o.d is the goal of existence and the essence of religion. "Man is left alone with G.o.d without any world to mediate between them, and in the ecstatic vision of the Absolute the light of reason is extinguished."[8]
Meagre as our sketch of ancient thought has necessarily been, it is perhaps enough to show that the debt of religion to Greek and Roman Ethics is incalculable. It lifted man above vague wonder, and gave him courage to define his relation to existence. It caused him to ask questions of experience, and awakened him to the value of life and the meaning of freedom, duty, and good. Finally, it brought into view those contrasted aims of life and society which find their solution in the Christian ideal.[9]
II
Christianity stands in the closest relation with _Hebrew religion_.
Much as the philosophy of Greece and Rome have contributed to Christendom, there is no such intimate relation between them as that which connects Christian Ethics with the morality of Israel. Christ Himself, and still more the Apostle Paul, a.s.sumed as a substratum of {45} their teaching the revelation which had been granted to the Jews.
The moral and religious doctrines comprehended under the designation of the "law" served, as the apostle said, as a _paidagogos_ or usher whose function it was to lead them to the school of Christ.
At the outset we are impressed by the fact that the Ethics of Judaeism was inseparable from its religion. Moral obligations were conceived as divine commands, and the moral law as a revelation of the divine will.
At first Jehovah was simply a tribal deity, but gradually this restricted view gave place to the wider conception of G.o.d as the sovereign of all men. The divine commandment is the criterion and measure of man"s obedience. Evil, while it has its source and head in a hostile but subsidiary power, consists in violation of Jehovah"s will.
There are three main channels of Hebrew revelation, commonly known as the _Law_, the _Prophecy_, and _Poetry_ of Old Testament.
1. LAW
(1) _The Mosaic Legislation_ centering in the Decalogue[10] is the first stage of Old Testament Ethic. The ten commandments, whether derived from Mosaic enactment or representing a later summary of duty, hold a supreme and formative place in the teaching of the Old Testament. All, not even excepting the fourth, are purely moral requirements. They are, however, largely negative; the fifth commandment only rising to positive duty. They are also merely external, regulative of outward conduct. The sixth and seventh protect the rights of persons, while the eighth guards outward property.
Though these laws may be shown to have their roots in the moral consciousness of mankind, they were at first restricted by Israel in their scope and practice to its own tribes.
(2) _The Civil laws_ present a second factor in the ethical education of Israel. The "Book of the Covenant"[11] reveals a certain advancement in political legislation. Still the {46} hard and legal enactments of retaliation--"An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth"--disclose a barbarous conception of right. Alongside of these primitive laws must be set those of a more humane nature--laws with regard to release, the permission of gleaning, the privileges of the year of jubilee.
(3) _The Ceremonial laws_ embody a third element in the moral life of Israel. These had to do chiefly with commands and prohibitions relative to personal conduct--"Meats and drinks and diverse washings"; and with sacrifices and forms of ritual worship.[12]
With regard to the moral value of the commandments two opposite errors are to be avoided. We must not refuse to recognise in the Old Testament the record of a true, if elementary and imperfect, revelation of G.o.d. But also we must beware of exalting the commandments of the Old Dispensation to the level of those of the New; and thus misunderstanding the nature and relation of both.
The Christian faith is in a sense the development of Judaeism, though it is infinitely more. The commandments of Moses, in so far as they have their roots in the const.i.tution of man, have not been superseded, but taken up and spiritualised by the Ethic of the Gospel.
2. PROPHECY
The dominant factor of Old Testament Ethics lay in the influence exerted by the prophets. They, and not the priests, are the great moralists of Israel. The prophets were speakers for G.o.d, the interpreters of His will. They were the moral guides of the people, the champions of integrity in political life, not less than witnesses for individual purity.[13]
We may sum up the ethical significance of the Hebrew prophets in three features.
(1) They were preachers of _personal righteousness_. In {47} times of falsehood and hypocrisy they were witnesses for integrity and truth, upholding the personal virtues of justice, sincerity, and mercy against the idolatry and formalism of the priesthood. "What doth the Lord require of thee," said Micah, "but to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy G.o.d."[14] In the same strain Isaiah exclaimed, "Bring no more vain oblations, but wash you and make you clean."[15]
And so also Habakkuk has affirmed in words which became the keynote of Paul"s theology and the watchword of the Reformation--"The just shall live by faith."[16]
(2) They were the advocates of the _rights of man_, of equity and justice between man and man. They denounce the tyranny of kings, and the luxury of the n.o.bles. They protest against the oppression of the poor and befriend the toilers of the cities. They proclaim the worth of man as man. They reveal Jehovah as the G.o.d of the common people, and seek to mitigate the burdens which lie upon the enslaved and down-trodden.
(3) They were the apostles of _Hope_. Not only did they seek to lift their fellow-men above their present calamities, but they proclaimed a message of peace and triumph which was to be evolved out of trouble. A great promise gradually loomed on the horizon, and hope began to centre in an anointed Deliverer. The Hebrew prophets were not probably conscious of the full significance of their own predictions. Like all true poets, they uttered greater things than they knew. The prophet who most clearly outlines this truth is the second Isaiah. As he looks down the ages he sees that healing is to be brought about through suffering, the suffering of a Sinless one. Upon this mysterious figure who is to rise up in the latter days is to be laid the burden of humanity. No other, not even St. Paul himself, has grasped so clearly the great secret of atonement or given so touching a picture of the power of vicarious suffering as this unknown prophet of Israel.
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3. THE POETICAL BOOKS
Pa.s.sing from the prophets to the poets of Israel--and especially to the book of Psalms--the devotional manual of the people, reflecting the moral and religious life of the nation at the various stages of its development--we find the same exalted character of G.o.d as a G.o.d of Righteousness, hating evil and jealous for devotion, the same profound sense of sin and the same high vocation of man. The Hebrew nation was essentially a poetic people,[17] and their literature is full of poetry. But poetry is not systematic. It is not safe, therefore, to deduce particular tenets of faith or moral principles from pa.s.sages which glow with intensity of feeling. But if a nation"s character is revealed in its songs, the deep spirituality and high moral tone of Israel are clearly reflected in that body of religious poetry which extends over a period of a thousand years, from David to the Maccabean age. It is at once national and personal, and is a wonderful record of the human heart in its various moods and yearnings. Underlying all true poetry there is a philosophy of life. G.o.d, for the Hebrew psalmist, is the one pervading presence. He is not a mere impersonation of the powers of nature, but a personal Being, righteous and merciful, with whom man stands in the closest relations. Holy and awful, indeed, hating iniquity and exacting punishment upon the wicked, He is also tender and pitiful--a Father of the oppressed, who bears their burdens, forgives their iniquities, and crowns them with tender mercy.[18] All nature speaks to the Hebrew of G.o.d. He is no far-off creator, but immanent in all His works.[19] He presides over mankind, and provides for the manifold wants of his creatures. It is this thought which gives unity to the nation, and binds the tribes into a common brotherhood. G.o.d is their personal friend. In war and peace, in worship and labour, at home and in exile, it is to Jehovah they look {49} for strength and light and joy. He is their Shepherd and Redeemer, under whose wings they trust. Corresponding to this sublime faith, the virtues of obedience and fidelity are dwelt upon, while the ideal of personal righteousness and purity is constantly held forth.
It is no doubt largely temporal blessings which the psalmists emphasise, and the rewards of integrity are chiefly those of material and earthly prosperity. The hope of the future life is nowhere clearly expressed in the Old Testament, and while in the Psalter here and there a dim yearning for a future with G.o.d breaks forth, hardly any of these poems illumine the destiny of man beyond the grave. The hope of Israel was limited mostly to this earth. The land beyond the shadows does not come within their purview. Like a child, the psalmist is content to know that his divine Father is near him here and now. When exactly the larger hope emerged we cannot say. But gradually, with the breaking up of the national life and under the pressure of suffering, a clearer vision dawned. With the limitations named, it is a sublime outlook upon life and a high-toned morality which the Psalter discloses.
Poetry, indeed, idealises, and no doubt the Israelites did not always live up to their aspirations; but men who could give utterance to a faith so clear, to a penitence so deep, and to longings so lofty and spiritual as these Psalms contain are not the least among the heralds of the kingdom of Christ.
We cannot enlarge upon the ethical ideas of the other writings of the Old Testament, the books of Wisdom, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job.
Their teaching, while not particularly lofty, is generally healthy and practical, consisting of homely commonplaces and shrewd observations upon life and conduct. The motives appealed to are not always the highest, and frequently have regard only to earthly prosperity and worldly policy. It must not, however, be overlooked that moral practice is usually allied with the fear of G.o.d, and the right choice of wisdom is represented as the dictate of piety not less than the sanction of prudence. The writers of the Wisdom literature are the {50} humanists of their age. As distinguished from the idealism of the prophets, they are realists who look at life in a somewhat utilitarian way. With the prophets, however, they are at one in regarding the inferiority of ceremonial to obedience and sincerity. G.o.d is the ruler of the world, and man"s task is to live in obedience to Him. What G.o.d requires is correct outward behaviour, self-restraint, and consideration of others.
In estimating the Ethics of Israel the fact that it was a preparatory stage in the revelation of G.o.d"s will must not be overlooked. We are not surprised, therefore, that, judged by the absolute standard of the New Testament, the morality of the Old Testament must be p.r.o.nounced imperfect. In two respects at least, in intent and extent, it is deficient.
(1) It is lacking in _Depth_. There is a tendency to dwell upon the sufficiency of external acts rather than the necessity of inward disposition. At the same time, in the Psalter and prophecy inward purity is recognised.[20] Further, the character of Jehovah is sometimes presented in a repellent aspect; as in the threatenings of the second commandment; the treatment of the children of Achan and the Sons of Korah; the seeming injustice of G.o.d, implied in the complaint of Moses, and the protests of Abraham and David. But again there are not wanting more kindly features of the Divine Being; and the Fatherhood of G.o.d finds frequent expression. Though the penal code is severe, a gentler spirit shines through many of its provisions, and protection is afforded to the wage-earner, the dependent, and the poor; while the care of slaves, foreigners, and even lower animals is not overlooked.[21] Again, it has been noticed that the motives to which the Old Testament appeals are often mercenary. Material prosperity plays an important part as an inducement to well-doing. The good which the pious patriarch or royal potentate contemplates is something which is calculated to enrich himself or advance his people. But here we must not forget that {51} G.o.d"s revelation is progressive, and His dealing with man educative. There is naturally a certain accommodation of the divine law to the various stages of the moral apprehension of the Jewish people. Gradually the nation is being carried forward by the promise of material benefits to the deeper and more inward appreciation of spiritual blessings.
(2) It is lacking in _Scope_. In regard to universality the Hebrew ideal, it must be acknowledged, is deficient. G.o.d is usually represented as the G.o.d of Israel alone, and not as the G.o.d of all men, and the obligations of veracity, honesty, and mercy are confined within the limits of the nation. It is true that a prominent commandment given to Israel and endorsed by our Lord runs thus: "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."[22] But the extent of the obligation seems to be restricted by the context: "Thou shalt not avenge nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people." It is contended that the word translated "neighbour" bears a wider import than the English term, and is really applicable to any person. The larger idea is expressed in vv. 33, 34, where the word "stranger" or "foreigner" is subst.i.tuted for neighbour. And there are pa.s.sages in which the stranger is regarded as the special client of G.o.d, and is enjoined to look to Him for protection.
The Jews were not in practice, however, faithful to the humanitarianism of their law, and, in keeping with other nations, showed a tendency to restrict divine favours within the limits of their own land, and to maintain throughout their history an att.i.tude of aloofness and repellent isolation which even amounted to intolerance towards other races. In early days, however, the obligation of hospitality was regarded as sacred.[23] Nor must we forget that, whatever may have been the Jewish practice, the promise enshrined in their revelation involves the unity of mankind; while several of the prophecies and Psalms look forward to a world-wide blessing.[24] In Isaiah we even read, "G.o.d of the whole earth shall He be called."[25]
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The stream of preparation for Christianity thus flowed steadily through three channels, the Greek, the Roman, and the Jew. Each contributed something to the fullness of the time.
The problem of Greek civilisation was the problem of _freedom_, the realisation of self-dependence and self-determination. In the pursuit of these ends Greece garnered conclusions which are the undying possessions of the world. If to the graces of self-abas.e.m.e.nt, meekness and charity it remained a stranger, it gave a new worth to the individual, and showed that without the virtues of wisdom, courage, steadfastness and justice man could not attain to moral character.
The Roman"s gift was unbending devotion to _duty_. With a genius for rule he forced men into one polity; and by levelling material barriers he enabled the nations to commune, and made a highway for the message of freedom and brotherhood. But, intoxicated with material glory, he became blind to spiritual good, and in his universal toleration he emptied all faiths of their content, driving the ma.s.ses to superst.i.tion, and the few who yearned for a higher life to withdrawal from the world.
The Jewish contribution was _righteousness_. Not specially distinguished by intellectual powers, nor gifted in political enterprise, his endowment was spiritual insight, and by his dispersion throughout the world he made others the sharers of his inheritance.
But his tendency was to keep his privilege to himself, or so to load it with legal restrictions as to bar its acceptance for strangers; and in his pride of isolation he failed to recognise his Deliverer when He came.
Thus, negatively and positively, by failure and by partial attainment, the world was prepared for Him who was the desire of all nations. In Christ were gathered up the wisdom of the Greek, the courage of the Roman, the righteousness of the Jew; and He who came not to destroy but to fulfil at once interpreted and satisfied the longings of the ages.
[1] _Apologia_, pp. 38-9.
[2] Cf. Adam, _Vitality of Platonism_, p. 3.
[3] _Nic. Ethics_, bk. i. chap. 5.
[4] _histharnikai ergasiai_, Arist., _Politics_, iii. "There is nothing common between a master and his slave," _Nic. Ethics_, viii.
[5] Butcher, _Harvard Lectures on Greek Subjects_, quoted by Barbour, _Philos. Study of Christian Ethics_, p. 11. Cf. also Burnet, _Ethics of Aristotle_, p. 73. "The "mean" is really the true nature of the soul when fully developed."
[6] _Hist. of Europ. Morals_, vol. i. chap. ii.
[7] See Author"s _Ethics of St. Paul_ for further discussion of relation of Paul to Stoics.