SOCRATES (B.C. 469-399), the grand central figure in the group of ancient philosophers, arrived in Athens in the midst of this general skepticism. He had an invincible faith in truth. "He made her the mistress of his soul, and with patient labor, and unwearied energy, did his great and n.o.ble soul toil after perfect communion with her." He was disappointed and dissatisfied with the results that had been reached by the methods of his predecessors, and he was convinced that by these methods the problem of the universe could not be solved. He therefore turned away from physical inquiries, and devoted his whole attention to the study of the human mind, its fundamental beliefs, ideas, and laws.
If he can not penetrate the mysteries of the outer world, he will turn his attention to the world within. He will "know himself," and find within himself the reason, and ground, and law of all existence. There he discovered certain truths which can not possibly be questioned. He felt he had within his own heart a faithful monitor--a _conscience_, which he regarded as the voice of G.o.d.[474] He believed "he had a divine teacher with him at all times. Though he did not possess wisdom, this teacher could put him on the road to seek it, could preserve him from delusions which might turn him out of the way, could keep his mind fixed upon the end for which he ought to act and live."[475] In himself, therefore, he sought that ground of cert.i.tude which should save him from the prevailing skepticism of his times. The Delphic inscription, G????
sea?t??, "_know thyself_" becomes henceforth the fundamental maxim of philosophy.
[Footnote 474: The Daemon of Socrates has been the subject of much discussion among learned men. The notion, once generally received, that his _da???_ was "a familiar genius," is now regarded as an exploded error. "Nowhere does Socrates, in Plato or Xenophon, speak of _a_ genius or demon, but always of a _dmoniac something (t? da??????_, or _da????? t?_), or of a _sign_, a _voice_, a _divine sign_, a _divine voice_" (Lewes"s "Biographical History of Philosophy," p. 166).
"Socrates always speaks of a _divine or supernatural somewhat_ ("divinum quiddam," as Cicero has it), the nature of which he does not attempt to divine, and to which he never attributes personality" (Butler"s "Lectures on Ancient Philosophy," vol. i. p. 357). The scholar need not to be informed that _t? da??????_, in cla.s.sic literature, means the divine Essence (Lat. _numen_), to which are attributed events beyond man"s power, yet not to be a.s.signed to any special G.o.d.]
[Footnote 475: Maurice"s "Ancient Philosophy," p. 124.]
Truth has a rational, _a priori_ foundation in the const.i.tution of the human mind. There are _ideas_ connatural to the human reason which are the copies of those archetypal ideas which belong to the Eternal Reason.
The grand problem of philosophy, therefore, now is--_What are these fundamental_ IDEAS _which are unchangeable and permanent, amid all the diversifies of human opinion, connecting appearance with reality, and const.i.tuting a ground of certain knowledge or absolute truth_? Socrates may not have held the doctrine of ideas as exhibited by Plato, but he certainly believed that there were germs of truth latent in the human mind--principles which governed, unconsciously, the processes of thought, and that these could be developed by reflection and by questioning. These were embryonate in the womb of reason, coming to the birth, but needing the "maieutic" or "obstetric" art, that they might be brought forth.[476] He would, therefore, become the accoucheur of ideas, and deliver minds of that secret truth which lay in their mental const.i.tution. And thus _Psychology_ becomes the basis of all legitimate metaphysics.
[Footnote 476: Plato"s "Theaetetus," -- 22.]
By the general consent of antiquity, as well as by the concurrent judgment of all modern historians of philosophy, Socrates is regarded as having effected a complete revolution in philosophic thought, and, by universal consent, he is placed at the commencement of a new era in philosophy. Schleiermacher has said, "the service which Socrates rendered t? philosophy consisted not so much in the truths arrived at _as in the_ METHOD _by which truth is sought_." As Bacon inaugurated a new method in physical inquiry, so Socrates inaugurated a new method in metaphysical inquiry.
What, then, was this _new method_? It was no other than the _inductive_ method applied to the facts of consciousness. This method is thus defined by Aristotle: "Induction is the process from particulars to generals;" that is, it is the process of discovering laws from facts, causes from effects, being from phenomena. But how is this process of induction conducted? By observing and enumerating the real facts which are presented in consciousness, by noting their relations of resemblance or difference, and by cla.s.sifying these facts by the aid of these relations. In other words, it is _a.n.a.lysis_ applied to the phenomena of mind.[477] Now Socrates gave this method of psychological a.n.a.lysis to Greek philosophy. There are two things of which Socrates must justly be regarded as the author,--the _inductive reasoning_ and _abstract definition_.[478] We readily grant that Socrates employed this method imperfectly, for methods are the last things perfected in science; but still, the Socratic movement was a vast movement in the right direction.
[Footnote 477: Cousin"s "Lectures on the History of Philosophy," vol. i.
p. 30.]
[Footnote 478: Aristotle"s "Metaphysics," vol. xii. ch. iv. p. 359 (Bohn"s edition).]
In what are usually regarded as the purely Socratic dialogues,[479]
Plato evidently designs to exhibit this method of Socrates. They proceed continually on the firm conviction that there is a standard or criterion of truth in the reason of man, and that, by _reflection_, man can apprehend and recognize the truth. To awaken this power of reflection; to compel men to a.n.a.lyze their language and their thoughts; to lead them from the particular and the contingent, to the universal and the necessary; and to teach them to test their opinions by the inward standard of truth, was the aim of Socrates. These dialogues are a picture of the conversations of Socrates. They are literally an education of the thinking faculty. Their purpose is to discipline men to think for themselves, rather than to furnish opinions for them. In many of these dialogues Socrates affirms nothing. After producing many arguments, and examining a question on all sides, he leaves it undetermined. At the close of the dialogue he is as far from a declaration of opinions as at the commencement. His grand effort, like that of Bacon"s, is to furnish men a correct method of inquiry, rather than to apply that method and give them results.
[Footnote 479: "Laches," "Charmides," "Lysis," "The Rivals," "First and Second Alcibiades," "Theages," "c.l.i.tophon." See Whewell"s translation, vol. i.]
We must not, however, from thence conclude that Socrates did not himself attain any definite conclusions, or reach any specific and valuable results. When, in reply to his friends who reported the answer of the oracle of Delphi, that "Socrates was the wisest of men," he said, "he supposed the oracle declared him wise _because he knew nothing_," he did not mean that true knowledge was unattainable, for his whole life had been spent in efforts to attain it. He simply indicates the disposition of mind which is most befitting and most helpful to the seeker after truth. He must be conscious of his own ignorance. He must not exalt himself. He must not put his own conceits in the way of the thing he would know. He must have an open eye, a single purpose, an honest mind, to prepare him to receive light when it comes. And that there is light, that there is a source whence light comes, he avowed in every word and act.
Socrates unquestionably believed in one Supreme G.o.d, the immaterial, infinite Governor of all. He cherished that instinctive, spontaneous faith in G.o.d and his Providence which is the universal faith of the human heart. He saw this faith revealed in the religious sentiments of all nations, and in the tendency to worship so universally characteristic of humanity.[480] He appealed to the consciousness of absolute dependence--the persuasion, wrought by G.o.d in the minds of all men, that "He is able to make men happy or miserable," and the consequent sense of obligation which teaches man he ought to obey G.o.d.
And he regarded with some degree of affectionate tenderness the common sentiment of his countrymen, that the Divine Government was conducted through the ministry of subordinate deities or generated G.o.ds. But he sought earnestly to prevent the presence of these subordinate agents from intercepting the clear view of the Supreme G.o.d.
The faith of Socrates was not, however, grounded on mere feeling and sentiment. He endeavored to place the knowledge of G.o.d on a rational basis. We can not read the arguments he employed without being convinced that he antic.i.p.ated all the subsequent writers on Natural Theology in his treatment of the argument from _special ends_ or _final causes_. We venture to abridge the account which is given by Xenophon of the conversation with Aristodemus:[481]
[Footnote 480: "Memorabilia," bk. i. ch. iv. -- 16.]
[Footnote 481: Ibid., bk. i. ch. iv.]
"I will now relate the manner in which I once heard Socrates discoursing with Aristodemus concerning the Deity; for, observing that he never prayed nor sacrificed to the G.o.ds, but, on the contrary, ridiculed those who did, he said to him:
""Tell me, Aristodemus, is there any man you admire on account of his merits? Aristodemus having answered, "Many,--"Name some of them, I pray you," said Socrates. "I admire," said Aristodemus, "Homer for his Epic poetry, Melanippides for his dithyrambics, Sophocles for his tragedy, Polycletus for statuary, and Zeuxis for painting."
""But which seemed to you most worthy of admiration, Aristodemus--the artist who forms images void of motion and intelligence, or one who has skill to produce animals that are endued, not only with activity, but understanding?"
""The latter, there can be no doubt," replied Aristodemus, "provided the production was not the effect of chance, but of wisdom and contrivance."
""But since there are many things, some of which we can easily see the use of, while we can not say of others to what purpose they are produced, which of these, Aristodemus, do you suppose the work of wisdom?"
""It would seem the most reasonable to affirm it of those whose fitness and utility are so evidently apparent," answered Aristodemus.
""But it is evidently apparent that He who, at the beginning, made man, endued him with senses because they were good for him; eyes wherewith to behold what is visible, and ears to hear whatever was heard; for, say, Aristodemus, to what purpose should odor be prepared, if the sense of smelling had been denied or why the distinction of bitter or sweet, of savory or unsavory, unless a palate had been likewise given, conveniently placed to arbitrate between them and proclaim the difference? Is not that Providence, Aristodemus, in a most eminent manner conspicuous, which, because the eye of a man is so delicate in its contexture, hath therefore prepared eyelids like doors whereby to secure it, which extend of themselves whenever it is needful, and again close when sleep approaches? Are not these eyelids provided, as it were, with a fence on the edge of them to keep off the wind and guard the eye?
Even the eyebrow itself is not without its office, but, as a penthouse, is prepared to turn off the sweat, which falling from the forehead might enter and annoy that no less tender than astonishing part of us. Is it not to be admired that the ears should take in sounds of every sort, and yet are not too much filled with them? That the fore teeth of the animal should be formed in such a manner as is evidently best for cutting, and those on the side for grinding it to pieces? That the mouth, through which this food is conveyed, should be placed so near the nose and eyes as to prevent the pa.s.sing unnoticed whatever is unfit for nourishment?... And canst thou still doubt, Aristodemus, whether a _disposition of parts like this should be a work of chance, or of wisdom and contrivance_?"
""I have no longer any doubt," replied Aristodemus; "and, indeed, the more I consider it, the more evident it appears to me that man must be the masterpiece of some great Artificer, carrying along with it infinite marks of the love and favor of Him who hath thus formed it."
""But, further (unless thou desirest to ask me questions), seeing, Aristodemus, thou thyself art conscious of reason and intelligence, supposest thou there is no intelligence elsewhere? Thou knowest thy body to be a small part of that wide-extended earth thou everywhere beholdest; the moisture contained in it thou also knowest to be a portion of that mighty ma.s.s of waters whereof seas themselves are but a part, while the rest of the elements contribute out of their abundance to thy formation. It is the _soul_, then, alone, that intellectual part of us, which is come to thee by some lucky chance, from I know not where. If so, there is no intelligence elsewhere; and we must be forced to confess that this stupendous universe, with all the various bodies contained therein--equally amazing, whether we consider their magnitude or number, whatever their use, whatever their order--all have been produced by chance, not by intelligence!"
""It is with difficulty that I can suppose otherwise," returned Aristodemus; "for I behold none of those G.o.ds whom you speak of as framing and governing the world; whereas I see the artists when at their work here among us."
""Neither yet seest thou thy soul, Aristodemus, which, however, most a.s.suredly governs thy body; although it may well seem, by thy manner of talking, that it is chance and not reason which governs thee."
""I do not despise the G.o.ds," said Aristodemus; "on the contrary, I conceive so highly of their excellency, as to suppose they stand in no need of me or of my services."
""Thou mistakest the matter," Aristodemus, "the great magnificence they have shown in their care of thee, so much the more honor and service thou owest them."
""Be a.s.sured," said Aristodemus, "if I once could persuade myself the G.o.ds take care of man, I should want no monitor to remind me of my duty."
""And canst thou doubt, Aristodemus, if the G.o.ds take care of man? Hath not the glorious privilege of walking upright been alone bestowed on him, whereby he may with the better advantage survey what is around him, contemplate with more ease those splendid objects which are above, and avoid the numerous ills and inconveniences which would otherwise befall him? Other animals, indeed, they have provided with feet; but to man they have also given hands, with which he can form many things for use, and make himself happier than creatures of any other kind. A tongue hath been bestowed on every other animal; but what animal, except man, hath the power of forming words with it whereby to explain his thoughts and make them intelligible to others? But it is not with respect to the body alone that the G.o.ds have shown themselves bountiful to man. Their most excellent gift is that of a soul they have infused into him, which so far surpa.s.ses what is elsewhere to be found; for by what animal except man is even the existence of the G.o.ds discovered, who have produced and still uphold in such regular order this beautiful and stupendous frame of the universe? What other creature is to be found that can serve and adore them?... In thee, Aristodemus, has been joined to a wonderful soul a body no less wonderful; and sayest thou, after this, the G.o.ds take no thought for me? What wouldst thou, then, more to convince thee of their care?"
""I would they should send and inform me," said Aristodemus, "what things I ought or ought not to do, in like manner as thou sayest they frequently do to thee.""
In reply, Socrates shows that the revelations of G.o.d which are made in nature, in history, in consciousness, and by oracles, are made _for_ all men and _to_ all men. He then concludes with these remarkable words: "As, therefore, amongst men we make best trial of the affection and grat.i.tude of our neighbor by showing him kindness, and make discovery of his wisdom by consulting him in our distress, do thou, in like manner, behave towards the G.o.ds; and if thou wouldst experience what their wisdom and their love, render thyself deserving of some of those divine secrets which may not be penetrated by man, and are imparted to those alone who consult, who adore, and who obey the Deity. Then shalt thou, my Aristodemus, understand _there is a Being whose eye pa.s.ses through all nature, and whose ear is open to every sound; extended to all places, extending through all time; and whose bounty and care can know no other bounds than those fixed by his own creation_".[482]
[Footnote 482: Lewes"s translation, in "Biog. History of Philosophy,"
pp. 160-165.]
Socrates was no less earnest in his belief in the immortality of the soul, and a state of future retribution. He had reverently listened to the intuitions of his own soul--the instinctive longings and aspirations of his own heart, as a revelation from G.o.d. He felt that all the powers and susceptibilities of his inward nature were in conscious adaptation to the idea of immortality, and that its realization was the appropriate destiny of man. He was convinced that a future life was needed to avenge the wrongs and reverse the unjust judgments of the present life;[483]
needed that virtue may receive its meet reward, and the course of Providence may have its amplest vindication. He saw this faith reflected in the universal convictions of mankind, and the "common traditions" of all ages.[484] No one refers more frequently than Socrates to the grand old mythologic stories which express this faith; to Minos, and Rhadamanthus, and aeacus, and Triptolemus, who are "real judges," and who, in "the Place of Departed Spirits, administer _justice_."[485] He believed that in that future state the pursuit of wisdom would be his chief employment, and he antic.i.p.ated the pleasure of mingling in the society of the wise, and good, and great of every age.
[Footnote 483: "Apology," -- 32, p. 329 (Whewell"s edition).]
[Footnote 484: Ibid.]
[Footnote 485: "Apology," p. 330.]
Whilst, then, Socrates was not the first to teach the doctrine of immortality, because no one could be said to have first _discovered_ it any more than to have first discovered the existence of a G.o.d, he was certainly the first to place it upon a philosophic basis. The Phaedo presents the doctrine and the _reasoning_ by which Socrates had elevated his mind above the fear of death. Some of the arguments may be purely Platonic, the argument especially grounded on "ideas;" still, as a whole, it must be regarded as a tolerably correct presentation of the manner in which Socrates would prove the immortality of the soul.
In _Ethics_, Socrates was pre-eminently himself. The systematic resolution of the whole theory of society into the elementary principle of natural law, was peculiar to him. _Justice_ was the cardinal principle which must lie at the foundation of all good government. The word s?f?a--_wisdom_--included all excellency in personal morals, whether as manifested (reflectively) in the conduct of one"s self, or (socially) towards others. And _Happiness_, in its purity and perfection, can only be found in virtuous action.[486]
[Footnote 486: Butler"s "Lectures on Ancient Philosophy," vol. i. pp.
360, 361.]
Socrates left nothing behind him that could with propriety be called a _school_. His chief glory is that he inaugurated a new _method_ of inquiry, which, in Plato and Aristotle, we shall see applied. He gave a new and vital impulse to human thought, which endured for ages; "and he left, as an inheritance for humanity, the example of a heroic life devoted wholly to the pursuit of truth, and crowned with martyrdom."
CHAPTER X.