Limited monarchy. Mirabeau.
2. Increasing influence and rise to control of France of the Parisian proletariat. The Republic ... The Terror ... Robespierre.
3. Radiation of revolutionary ideas to other nations.
4. Wars between revolutionary France and monarchical Europe.
The rise of Napoleon.
_D._ The decline of the revolutionary elements, 1800-1815.
1. France converted from a republic to an empire by Napoleon.
2. The Napoleonic Wars.
_a._ Reveal Napoleon"s dynastic ambition.
_b._ Lead Europe to combine against him and to blame democratic ideas for the sorrows of the time.
_c._ Result in the defeat of Napoleon and the triumph of anti-democratic or reactionary elements.
_E._ The fruits of the principle of popular sovereignty during the 19th century (chronologically England and France lead the other countries in most of these developments).[39]
1. Const.i.tutions, embodying ever-increasing popular rights and powers.
2. Extension of suffrage. Political parties and party politics.
3. The spirit of nationality.
Independence of Greece and Belgium.
Unification of Italy and Germany.
National revivals in Poland, Bulgaria, Servia, Rumania, Bohemia, Finland, Ireland, and elsewhere.
Pan-Germanism, Pan-Slavism, Imperial Federation.
4. Cla.s.s consciousness and strife.
Feudal aristocratic cla.s.s--leans toward absolute monarchy.
Bourgeoisie (employing capitalists)--leans toward limited monarchies or republics.
Labor--leans toward socialism. (The other elements in the society are slow in developing a group consciousness.) 5. Abolition of feudal forms and tenures.
Fight on great landlords. Encouragement of independent farmers.
Emanc.i.p.ation and protection of peasants: France, 1789; Prussia, 1808; Austria, 1848; Russia, 1861.
6. Social, socialistic, and humanitarian legislation.
Factory acts, minimum wage laws, industrial insurance, old age insurance, labor exchanges, child labor laws, prison reform acts, revision of penal codes, abolition of slavery and slave trade, government control or ownership of railways, telephones, telegraph, and mails.
7. Opposition to state or national churches.
Disestablishment agitations ... Separation of church and state.
8. Demand for free public schools to replace church or other private schools. State lay schools in England ... Suppression of teaching orders in France ... Kulturkampf in Germany ... Expulsion of Jesuits ... Tendency toward compulsory non-sectarian education.
9. Imperialism.
Industrial societies depend on imports, exports, and markets as means of keeping labor employed and people prosperous.
This means export of capital, hence, plans for colonies, closed doors, preferential markets, and demands for the protection of citizens abroad and political stability in backward areas.
Part.i.tion of Africa, Asia, and Near East.
10. Militarism.
Expansion and colonial acquisition by one country exclude another, thus unsettling the balance of power. Therefore rival nations depend on force and go in for military and naval programs.
_F._ The conflict between reactionary and bourgeois interests, 1815-1848.
1. Reactionary elements in control--opposed to democracy and revolutionary doctrines.
_a._ Restore Europe as nearly as possible on old lines at Vienna, 1815.
Ignore liberal tendencies and national sentiments.
_b._ Seek to maintain _status quo_.
Metternich ... Holy Alliance.
Carlsbad Decrees ... Congresses of Troppau, Laibach, Verona ... Intervention in Naples, Piedmont, and Spain.
Proposal to restore Latin America to Monarchy.
Opposed by Great Britain in compliance with bourgeois interests.
Monroe Doctrine.
_c._ Failed to prevent: Greek revolution and independence (national movement).
Separation of Belgium from the Netherlands (national).
Revival of liberal demands in various quarters, producing the revolution of 1830 in France and elsewhere.
2. The ascendancy of the bourgeoisie, 1830-1848.
_a._ Industrialism on the continent.
_b._ The bourgeois (capitalist employer) secures political power to advance his interests.
Revolution of 1830.
Reform bill of 1832.
Legislation against labor organizations and for tariffs favoring trade.
_c._ The development of organized labor and socialism.
Legislation hostile to labor. Chartism.
Labor in France, Germany, and Belgium.
Spread of socialist doctrines.
_d._ The Revolution of 1848.
Socialist republican state in France, 1848.
The winning of const.i.tutions in Prussia, Austria, and elsewhere--breach in the walls of reaction.
_G._ The broadening base of democracy, 1848-1914.
1. The organization of labor.
2. The spread of socialistic views and of cla.s.s consciousness.
Karl Marx.
3. The resistance of the old aristocratic cla.s.s and the bourgeoisie, who gradually fuse to form the conservative element in all nations.
Napoleon III restores the Empire in France.
In Austria and Prussia, Bismarck and Francis Joseph II retrieve losses of 1848.
Disraeli and Conservatives in England.
4. The progress toward universal suffrage after 1865, strengthening political position of lower cla.s.ses.
Vindication of democratic government through triumph of the North in the United States gave impetus to democracy abroad.
Electoral reform bills in Great Britain, 1867, 1884, 1885.
Franco-Prussian War and the Third French Republic. Universal suffrage.
Unification of Germany and universal suffrage.
Russian Revolution, 1917.
Woman suffrage.
5. Popular sovereignty and its consequences.
_a._ Triumph of republicans and radicals in France over monarchists and clericals.
_b._ Liberal ministries in United Kingdom.
Lloyd George Budget ... Parliament Act. Social legislation.
_c._ Growth of Social Democratic party in Germany.
Bismarck and state socialism.
_d._ In recent times the many divergent political parties fall rather instinctively into three groups which have opposing views and policies on almost every question, and which may be called: Conservatives (Tories, aristocrats, monarchists, Junkers, clericals, capitalists, imperialists, militarists); peasants and farmers, being conservative, are usually politically allied to this group.
Liberals (progressives, democrats, labor parties, Socialists, social democrats, Dissenters, anti-imperialists, anti-militarists).
Radicals, Bolsheviki or revolutionists seeking change of the economic and social order.
6. Effects of the war _a._ Extensive nationalization and socialization of industry and human rights in all belligerent countries.
_b._ Develops into a "war for democracy," and for moral as opposed to materialistic aims.
_c._ Culminates in an attempt to secure a righteous and lasting peace through the instrumentality of a league of nations.
EDWARD KREHBIEL
_Leland Stanford Junior University_
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEXTS
ANDREWS, C. M. _Historical Development of Modern Europe._ Two vols. G.