4. About A.D. 388, Jerome at the solicitation of Damasus, bishop of Rome, undertook the arduous task of _revising_ the Old Latin version by a comparison with the original Greek text. In this work he proceeded very cautiously, being well aware of the prejudices which he must encounter on the part of mult.i.tudes who could not discriminate between the authority of the original Greek text and that of the Latin version made from it. He began with the four gospels. According to his own testimony, he selected ancient Greek ma.n.u.scripts, but such as did not differ much from the Latin usage; and in the use of these he so restrained his pen that, when he had corrected those things only which seemed to change the sense, he suffered the rest to remain as they were.
(Preface to the four gospels addressed to Damasus.) His work of revision was afterwards extended to the remaining books of the New Testament; a revision which Tregelles describes as "less complete and uniform than that of the gospels, and in which many parts seem to have received hardly any alterations from his hand." In Horne, vol. 4, ch. 23. About the same time he turned his attention to the Latin version of the Old Testament, which had been made, not from the original Hebrew, but from the Greek Septuagint. Of this he first revised the Psalter, but not very thoroughly; in his own words, "cursorily for the most part." This first revision is known by the name of the _Roman_ Psalter. A later and more thorough revision, executed by Jerome at Bethlehem between A.D. 384-391, is called the _Gallican_ Psalter. There is good reason to believe that Jerome"s revision extended to all the remaining books of the Old Testament, though we have positive evidence in respect to only a part of them--Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Chronicles.
Gregory of Tours is said to have introduced Jerome"s second revision of the Psalter into the public service in France; whence its name _Gallican_. The Roman Psalter was retained in Italy till the time of Pius V., who introduced the Gallican generally. But three churches, one of them that of the Vatican, continued to use the Roman Psalter. Westcott in Smith"s Bible Dict.; Art. Vulgate.
5. Jerome was soon convinced of the necessity of undertaking a _new translation_ of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew. To this arduous task he addressed himself with great earnestness, availing himself of the help of Jewish scholars to complete his knowledge of the Hebrew. The whole work occupied his time, with periods of intermission, from A.D. 385 to A.D. 405. See in Horne, vol. 2, p. 89. He did not venture, however, to make a new version from the Hebrew of the book of Psalms, the constant use of which in the church service was a barrier to the subst.i.tution of a new translation. He accordingly retained his second _revision_ from the Septuagint, which is called the Gallican Psalter. Of the Apocryphal books he translated only two, Judith and Tobit. The remaining Apocryphal writings were retained in their old form. The Latin bible thus in part revised and in part translated by Jerome (most of the Apocryphal writings being left unrevised) is called the _Vulgate_, that is _common_ or _current_ version, although this term belonged, before the days of Jerome, to the Old Latin itself. Its diversified character is thus briefly indicated by Westcott.--"(1.) _Unrevised Old Latin_: Wisdom, Eccl., 1, 2 Macc., Baruch. (2.) _Old Latin revised, from the LXX._: Psalter. (3.) _Jerome"s free translation from the original text_: Judith, Tobit. (4.) _Jerome"s translation from the original_: Old Testament except Psalter. (5.) _Old Latin revised from Greek MSS._: Gospels. (6.) _Old Latin cursorily revised_: the remainder of New Testament." In Smith"s Bible Dict.; Art. Vulgate.
It is not necessary to follow the history of the text of the Vulgate since Jerome"s day. Suffice it to say that the simultaneous use of the Old Latin and Vulgate led to a corruption of both texts, which has not yet been thoroughly removed. The present standard text is that called the _Clementine_, from Pope Clement VIII., under whose auspices the Vulgate was edited in 1592. This is better than the preceding _Sixtine_ edition, A.D. 1590, but not by any means the pure text of Jerome, as it might be recovered, proximately at least, by a careful collation of ancient ma.n.u.scripts and quotations.
The oldest and best ma.n.u.script of the Latin Vulgate Old and New Testaments, is the _Codex Amiatinus_ in the Laurentian Library at Florence. It belongs to the sixth century, and exhibits the text of Jerome in a very pure form, carrying us back to about 120 years from Jerome"s death. The _Codex Fuldensis_ is said to belong to the same century. There are other good ma.n.u.scripts more or less complete of the eighth and ninth centuries.
Many other Latin versions have appeared in modern times, sometimes in connection with the original text, and sometimes separately, which it is not necessary to notice in detail.
II. SYRIAC VERSIONS.
6. The ancient Syriac version called the _Pes.h.i.to_ belongs, in the judgment of biblical scholars, to the second century. It comprises the Old Testament as well as the New. The version of the Old Testament was made from the original Hebrew, and thus has the honor of being the oldest translation of the Hebrew Scriptures for Christian use, the Old Latin version having been made from the Septuagint. The version of the New Testament was made in connection with that of the Old, so that both together const.i.tute one work.
Syrian tradition makes extravagant claims in respect to the antiquity of the Pes.h.i.to, telling us that it was executed by men sent to Palestine by the apostle Thaddeus (whom tradition connects with the founding of the church at Edessa), and by Abgarus, King of Edessa, a contemporary of the Saviour. The Old Testament was sometimes referred to a still earlier age--that of Solomon and Hiram, or that of the captivity of the ten tribes.
Without giving credence to such traditions, we may well believe that it belongs to the earliest period of the Syrian churches, and cannot be placed later than the last part of the second century. Of the term _Pes.h.i.to_, that is, _simple_, there are different explanations. The most usual is that it denotes a simple and literal version, free from glosses and allegorical interpretations. Tregelles suggests that it was called _simple_ in contrast with the translation made by Paul of Tela from the Hexaplar text of Origen (see below, No. 8), which was replete with _asterisks_ and _obeli_ to mark Origen"s revisions, and had also marginal references. It is agreed that the Old Testament was translated from the original Hebrew and Chaldee, though the translators seem to have had before them the Greek version of the Seventy, and to have consulted it in the progress of their work
7. The Pes.h.i.to is a free, and at the same time, a faithful version of Scripture, holding the first place among the ancient versions for its general excellence, while it ranks with the Old Latin in antiquity. Its authority in both textual criticism and interpretation is deservedly high. As it regards textual criticism, however, its value is diminished by the fact that its text has not come down to us in a pure state. It has suffered in the same way as the text of the Old Latin, though not to the same extent.
Among the ma.n.u.scripts brought from the Nitrian monasteries, and deposited in the British Museum, is one of great antiquity, containing large portions of the four gospels in Syriac. Dr. Cureton published in 1858 the text of this ma.n.u.script as "Remains of a very ancient Syriac recension of the four gospels in Syriac, hitherto unknown in Europe,"
with an English translation and preface. Its appearance was hailed with lively interest and has excited warm discussions. The ma.n.u.script itself is a.s.signed to the fifth century, but it presents a text which, in the judgment of competent scholars, is older than the current text of the Pes.h.i.to. Whether it is an older form of the Pes.h.i.to version, or another and earlier version of the gospels, is a question that has been differently answered. It is maintained, on the one hand, that the Pes.h.i.to is a revision of the Curetonian text, "replete with readings unknown in the second century" (Tregelles in Smith"s Bible Dict.); on the other, that it is "an older version than the Pes.h.i.to; which the author or authors of the latter consulted throughout." Davidson in Alexander"s Kitto. Its great value for critical purposes must be acknowledged by all.
In many characteristic readings it agrees with the oldest ma.n.u.scripts and quotations. It has also some erroneous readings known to be of great antiquity. In a word, the high antiquity of its text cannot be reasonably questioned. Drs. Cureton and Tregelles think that the gospel of Matthew may be a translation from the apostle"s Hebrew copy. But this is denied by Davidson and others.
8. The _Philoxenian_ Syriac version was executed A.D. 508, under the auspices of Philoxenus, or Xenaias, bishop of Hierapolis or Mabug in Syria. Philoxenus belonged to the sect of the Monophysites, and it is generally thought that the version was made in the interest of that sect. The translator"s name was Polycarp, one of Philoxenus" rural bishops. With the exception, perhaps, of certain books (see below), the text of this version has not come down to us in its original form. We have only a _revision_ of it made A.D. 616 by Thomas of Harkel in a monastery of Alexandria, whence this version is also called the _Harclean_ Syriac. The characteristic of this version is its extremely literal character. It is the translator"s aim to represent every Greek word, even the article, by a corresponding Syriac word, even where the idiom of the language must thereby be violated. Hence its style is of necessity barbarous. But this very character of literalness gives to the Philoxenian version high authority in respect to textual criticism. So far as it has come down to us in its primitive form, it is, in truth, equal to the Greek text of its own time.
About the time that Thomas of Harkel revised the Philoxenian version of the New Testament, Paul of Tela, another Monophysite, executed what is called the _Hexaplar Syriac_ version of the Old Testament, because it was made from the text of Origen"s Hexaplar. Chap. 16, No. 12. It coincides with the Philoxenian version of the New Testament in respect to its character as well as the time of its appearance, being made on the principle of following the Greek text word for word as exactly as possible. Thus the Hexaplar version of the Old, and the Philoxenian version of the New, const.i.tute together a whole of like character throughout.
After the example of Origen, Paul introduced into his version _asterisks_ and _obeli_; the asterisk (*) to indicate insertions made in the text on the authority of ma.n.u.scripts and other versions; the obelus (), to mark pa.s.sages of doubtful character. Thus it supplies, as far as a version can, the Hexaplar of Origen, of which only a few fragments remain.
The Philoxenian version of the New Testament, as revised by Thomas of Harkel, contains also the same asterisks and obeli.
Critical marks and marginal readings also appear in most of the ma.n.u.scripts. This critical apparatus is generally thought to have proceeded from Thomas himself, in imitation of the Hexaplar Syriac of the Old Testament; but whether to indicate comparison with the Pes.h.i.to, or with the Greek ma.n.u.scripts employed by Thomas is not certain.
There is a version of the Catholic epistles wanting in the Pes.h.i.to--2 Pet., 2, 3 John, Jude--existing in two forms, one of which is thought to be the _unrevised_ Philoxenian text. There is a codex at Rome containing the four gospels which has also been supposed to contain the same unrevised text.
The _Jerusalem Syriac Lectionary_, containing simply lessons from the four gospels, is a peculiar version known to us from a single ma.n.u.script in the Vatican Library which belongs to the eleventh century. The version itself is referred by some to the sixth century, by others to a later date. Its dialect is barbarous, being a mixture of Chaldee and Syriac, but its readings are said often to coincide with the oldest and best authorities.
III. EGYPTIAN AND ETHIOPIC VERSIONS.
9. Formerly but one version was known to exist in the language of the ancient Egyptians. This, which was made in the dialect of lower Egypt, was naturally called _Coptic_. When it was discovered that another version existed in the dialect of upper Egypt, the Arabic term _Sahidic_ was applied to it. But since the word _Coptic_ is generic, applying to both dialects alike, it has been proposed to call the former version _Copto-Memphitic_ or simply _Memphitic_, from Memphis, the ancient capital of lower Egypt; and the latter _Copto-Thebaic_ or _Thebaic_, from Thebes, the celebrated capital of ancient upper Egypt. When these versions were executed cannot be determined with certainty. But they existed in the fourth century, and probably in the latter part of the third century. Their high antiquity gives to them great value in textual criticism. The latter of them, however, exists only in a fragmentary form. Some fragments of a _third_ version, differing from both the Memphitic and the Thebaic, have been discovered. To this, the epithet _Bashmuric_ has been applied, from the Arabian name _Bashmur_, a district of lower Egypt in the Delta to the East. But Egyptian scholars doubt whether the term is well applied, as the version is said to have stronger affinity to the Thebaic than to the Memphitic version.
The Memphitic and Thebaic versions are said to have contained the whole Bible, that of the Old Testament being made from the Septuagint. The whole Memphitic New Testament has been several times published, but never in such a manner as to meet the wants of Biblical criticism. Of the Thebaic version only some fragments have been published.
10. An _Ethiopic_ version of the whole Bible exists in the ancient dialect of Axum. That of the Old Testament was made from the Septuagint; that of the New is a close version of the original Greek. The age to which it belongs is not known. Many of the readings of its text are said to show an affinity with the older cla.s.s of Greek ma.n.u.scripts, while others are of a later character. This leads to the suspicion that the version has undergone revision by the aid of later Greek ma.n.u.scripts. An edition of the whole Bible is in process of publication in Germany.
IV. THE GOTHIC AND OTHER VERSIONS.
11. The first information which European scholars had of the existence of a _Gothic_ version of the New Testament was in the sixteenth century, when one Morillon copied from a Gothic ma.n.u.script in the library of the Monastery of Werden in Westphalia the Lord"s Prayer and some other parts, which were afterwards published. When the Swedes, in 1648, took Prague, among the spoils sent to Stockholm was the celebrated _Codex Argenteus_, _Silver ma.n.u.script_, containing a copy of the Gothic gospels written on purple vellum in silver letters, except the beginnings of the sections which are in gold. When entire the ma.n.u.script is said to have contained 320 leaves, but when found it had but 188 in quarto size. In its present state it wants parts of all the gospels. The letters are deeply furrowed, and beautifully regular. It is thought that this ma.n.u.script was executed for the use of some Gothic king. After various changes of place, it was finally deposited in the library of the University of Upsal in Sweden, where it is now preserved enclosed in a silver case. The Gothic version, of which the Codex Argenteus is a transcript, was made in the fourth century by Ulphilas, second bishop of the Goths in Moesia (the so-called Moeso-Goths). The ma.n.u.script itself belongs, it is thought, to the sixth century.
12. In 1762 a palimpsest was discovered by Knittel at Wolfenb.u.t.tel, a city of the duchy of Brunswick in Germany, containing, as the earlier writing, part of the epistle to the Romans in Gothic and Latin, the versions standing side by side. In 1817 the late Cardinal Mai discovered in the Ambrosian Library at Milan five palimpsests, from which, in connection with the Wolfenb.u.t.tel palimpsest, the Gothic text of the greater part of the Pauline epistles (that to the Hebrews not included) has been recovered, as also some fragments of the gospels, and of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. All that has been recovered of the Gothic version was edited in 1835-6 by Gabelentz and Loebe with a Latin translation, notes, and a Gothic dictionary and grammar. There are several later editions partly of the Codex Argenteus, and partly of all the Gothic remains of the Scriptures. Thus this interesting version, which represents the text of the New Testament in the fourth century as it was known to Ulphilas, is made available for the purposes of Biblical criticism.
13. There is an ancient _Armenian_ version unaccompanied as yet by any Latin translation; and thus available for critical purposes only through the help of those who know the language. By means of such help Dr.
Tregelles used it for his critical edition of the New Testament, and he speaks of its value "as a critical witness as to the general reading of certain Greek copies existing in the former half of the fifth century."
In Smith"s Bible Dict., Art. Armenian Version.
Other ancient versions, as the Arabic and Slavonic, we pa.s.s by; as their comparatively late date makes them of little importance for critical studies. The history of modern versions, among which is our own authorized version, presents a wide and interesting field of inquiry, but it does not come within the scope of the present work.
SECOND DIVISION, PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
1. The New Testament, like the Old, is not an abstract system of doctrines and duties, but a _record of facts_ involving doctrines and duties of the highest import. This record does not const.i.tute an independent history, complete in itself, and to be explained in its own light. It is rather the necessary sequel to the record of the Old Testament. It interprets the Old Testament, and is itself interpreted by it. The two const.i.tute together an organic whole, and can be truly understood only in their mutual connection. To discard the Old Testament whether formally or in practice, is to throw away the key which unlocks to us the treasures of the New; for the writers of the New Testament continually reason out of the Scriptures of the Old. If we cannot truly comprehend the Old Testament except when we view it as preparatory to the revelation contained in the New, so neither can we have a full understanding of the New except as the completion of the revelation begun in the Old. In a word, we understand revelation aright only in its unity.
2. The New Testament _uses_ all the teachings of the Old, but it does not _repeat_ them all. The unity, personality, and infinite perfections of G.o.d; his universal providence, and his supremacy as well over nations as individuals; the duties that men owe to G.o.d and each other, as embodied for substance in the ten commandments and expanded in the teachings of Moses and the prophets; the indissoluble connection, on the one hand, between righteousness and true prosperity, and on the other, between sin and ruin--all these great truths are so fully unfolded in the Old Testament that they need no formal repet.i.tion in the New. The person and office of the Messiah--as that great prophet, like unto Moses, whom G.o.d should raise up for his people in the latter days; as that mighty king of David"s line, who should sit on his throne and in his kingdom to order it and to establish it with judgment and with justice forever; as that high priest after the order of Melchisedec whom G.o.d should establish forever with a solemn oath--had been prefigured in the inst.i.tutions of Moses, in the Psalms, and in the writings of the prophets.
Some other important truths not so fully revealed in the Old Testament but deducible in a legitimate way either from its general scope or from some brief hints in its teachings, had become firmly established in the faith of the Jewish people during the long interval that elapsed between Malachi and Christ. Such particularly were the doctrines of the resurrection of the dead and of future rewards and punishments. These truths, also, as well as those more directly and fully taught in the Old Testament, were a.s.sumed by the Saviour and his apostles as a platform for the peculiar revelations of the gospel, the sum of which is _Jesus Christ crucified for the salvation of the world_. The four gospels, then, as containing the history of our Lord"s appearance and works, lie at the foundation of the revelation contained in the New Testament. To these, then, our attention must first be given; after which the history of the apostolic labors, as given in the Acts of the Apostles, will naturally follow.
I. THE GOSPELS AS A WHOLE.
3. The word _gospel_ (Anglo-Saxon, _G.o.d_, _good_, and _spell_, _history_ or _tidings_) answers to the Greek word _euangelion_, _good-tidings_, whence comes the Latin _evangelium_, with the derived words in use among us, as _evangelist_, _evangelical_, etc. It properly signifies the _good message itself_, and it is only by a secondary usage that it is applied to the _written histories_ of the Saviour"s life, as being the embodiment of this message. The t.i.tles prefixed to these gospels from the beginning; "The Gospel according to Matthew", "The Gospel according to Mark," etc., indicate that the written record is not itself the gospel, but rather an account of the gospel _according to_ these different writers. Christ himself is the author of the gospel. It existed and was received by many thousands before a line of it was put upon record on the written page.
4. The genuineness, uncorrupt preservation, and authenticity of the four canonical gospels have already been shown at some length. Chaps. 2, 3, 4. In connection with the argument for their genuineness, their natural division into two parts--the first three, commonly called the synoptical gospels, and the gospel according to John; the remarkable agreements and differences of the three synoptical gospels among themselves; and the remarkable contrast which the fourth gospel presents to all three of the synoptical gospels, have also been considered simply as _existing facts_. Chap. 2, Nos. 14 and 15. But when we seek an _explanation_ of these remarkable phenomena, we enter upon a very difficult problem, one on which the ingenuity of Biblical scholars has exhausted itself for several successive generations without reaching thus far a result that can be regarded as perfectly satisfactory. Almost all conceivable theories and combinations of theories have been proposed, some of which, however, are now generally abandoned as untenable, and need not be considered at large.
5. Looking at the three synoptical gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, we find a remarkable _agreement_ not only in their general plan, but in many of their details also. With the exception of our Lord"s last journey to Jerusalem and the history of his pa.s.sion there, they are mainly occupied with his ministry in Galilee. The selection of incidents is also to a great extent the same. "The most remarkable differences lie in the presence of a long series of events connected with the Galilean ministry, which are peculiar to St. Matthew and St. Mark (Matt.
14:22-16:12; Mark 6:45-8:26), and a second series of events connected with the journey to Jerusalem (Luke 9:51-18:14), which is peculiar to St. Luke." Westcott, Introduct. to the Study of the Gospels, chap. 3.
The coincidences of language, as well as incident, are also remarkable; and here the general law prevails that these coincidences are more common, as has been shown by Norton and others, in the recital of the words of others than in the narrative parts of the gospels, and most common when our Lord"s own words are recited.
6. But with these remarkable agreements coexist equally remarkable _differences_. Each writer has his own peculiarities of style, which appear more distinctly in the original than they can in any version. It has been noticed also by Biblical scholars that these peculiarities are more marked in the narrative than in the recitative parts of the gospels in question. Each writer, moreover, brings in incidents peculiar to himself, not in the form of patchwork, but as parts of a self consistent whole. So far is he from exact outward conformity to either of the other gospels, in respect to arrangement and circ.u.mstantial details, that the diversity between him and them in these particulars, sometimes creates serious difficulties when we attempt to arrange the three different narratives in the form of a harmony.
7. No theory of the origin of these three gospels can be true which does not explain both their coincidences and their differences. Hence we may set aside at once the hypothesis of their _mutual dependence_ on each other--that the later evangelists used the writings of the earlier. By the different advocates of this theory, each of the three synoptic gospels has been made in turn the primary record from which the others drew; but no one of them has been able, upon this hypothesis, to account for the omissions or insertions of the supposed later evangelists, much less for the remarkable fact already noticed, that the peculiarities of each writer appear more fully in the narrative than in the recitative part of his gospel. The later evangelists may, indeed, have been acquainted with the writings of the earlier and have consulted them, but this supposition alone does not explain their peculiar coincidences and differences.
Another hypothesis is that of an _original doc.u.ment or doc.u.ments_, from which all three are supposed to have drawn. The a.s.sumption of a single original written gospel, as the basis of our first three canonical gospels, is manifestly untenable. Had a primitive gospel existed of such compa.s.s and authority as to be the common source of our three synoptic gospels, it is inconceivable that the churches, which carefully preserved these three gospels, though two of them proceeded not from apostles themselves but only from their companions, should have allowed the original gospel so speedily and utterly to perish, that no traces of it remained in the days of Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement of Alexandria. Besides, this hypothesis, as it was soon seen, does not explain the peculiar relation of these gospels to each other in respect to coincidences and differences. Hence various modifications were proposed--an original Aramaic gospel with various Greek translations, this original Aramaic gospel variously increased with new matter, etc.
In a word, the form of these a.s.sumed original doc.u.ments was hypothetically explained from the actual form of our three synoptic gospels; the very reverse of the true problem, which was to explain, from some reliable data, the form of the canonical gospels themselves.
The remaining hypothesis is that of _oral tradition_ emanating from the apostles themselves, and maintained in its purity during their lives by their personal presence and teaching. That the gospel existed in this form alone for some years after the beginning of Christianity is admitted by all. The apostles were Christ"s chosen witnesses of his life and teachings. From their lips proceeded the tradition which now const.i.tutes our written gospels. The necessity of embodying this tradition in the form of permanent records was not felt at the beginning. But, as the churches were multiplied, oral tradition became liable to corruption in many ways through the multiplicity of the organs employed in its transmission. Then the need of written gospels began to manifest itself, and it was natural that the apostles should look to the supply of this need either by their own direct agency, or by that of men writing with their knowledge and approbation. How many years elapsed before the appearance of the earliest of our canonical gospels, which is commonly supposed to have been that of Matthew, we have no means of ascertaining with accuracy. But we may reasonably suppose that the period was long enough to allow the apostolic tradition of our Lord"s life and teachings to a.s.sume a somewhat definite shape in respect to both matter and outward form. _First_, in respect to _matter_. As their public instructions could not cover the whole of our Saviour"s history (John 20:30; 21: 25), they naturally selected, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, those parts of it which embodied the spirit and meaning of the whole. Since, moreover, the apostles remained together at Jerusalem for some time after our Lord"s ascension (Acts 8:1; 15:6), it is highly reasonable to suppose that in a matter of such moment they had a mutual understanding--an understanding which, while it interfered with the freedom of no one, secured a general agreement as to the points in our Lord"s history and teachings which should be especially insisted on.
_Secondly_ in respect to _outward form_. While the apostles were preserved by the illumination of the Holy Spirit from any superst.i.tious regard to the letter of our Lord"s teachings, their reverence for him as a perfect teacher, whose words were truth unmixed with error, must have made them anxious to put the oral tradition of his sayings into as perfect a form as possible; whence the tradition of our Saviour"s words would a.s.sume from the first a more fixed form than that of his life generally.