Even this shroud for the hero Laertes.
But these are examples of moderation. But exceeding these are the living creatures and men Achilles burns on the pyre of Patroclus. He tells us of them, but does not do so in words of praise. Therefore he exclaims (I. xxi. 19):--
On savage deeds intent.
And he first of all mentions monuments to the slain (I. vii. 336):--
And on the plains erect Around the pyre one common pyre for all.
And he gave the first example of funeral games. These are common to times of peace and war.
Experience in warlike affairs, which some authorities call Tactics, his poetry being varied by infantry, siege, and naval engagements, and also by individual contests, covers many types of strategy. Some of these are worth mentioning. In drawing up armies it is necessary always to put the cavalry in front, and after it the infantry. This he indicates in the following verses (I. ii. 297):--
In the front rank, with chariot and with horse, He plac"d the car-borne warriors; in the rear, Num"rous and brave, a cloud of infantry!
And as to placing leaders among the soldiers as they are arranged in files (I. ix. 86):--
Seven were the leaders; and with each went forth, A hundred gallant youths, with lances armed.
Some of the leaders fight in the front rank; some in the rear exhort the rest to fight (I. iv. 252):--
And come where round their chief Idomeneus, the warlike bards of Crete Were coming for the fight; Idomeneus Of courage stubborn as the forest boar The foremost ranks array"d; Meriones The rearmost squadrons had in charge.
It is necessary for those who are valiant to camp in the extreme limits, making as it were a wall for the rest; but for the king is pitched his tent in the safest place, that is, in the midst. He shows this by making the most valorous men, Achilles and Ajax, encamp in the most exposed s.p.a.ces of the fleet, but Agamemnon and the rest in the middle.
The custom of surrounding the camp with earth-works, and digging around it a deep and wide ditch and planting it in a circle with stakes so that no one can jump over it by reason of its breadth, nor go down into it because of its depth, is found in the warlike operations of Homer (I.
xii. 52):--
In vain we seek to drive Our horses o"er the ditch: it is hard to cross, "Tis crowned with pointed stakes, and then behind Is built the Grecian wall; these to descend, And from our cars in narrow s.p.a.ce to fight, Were certain ruin.
And in battle those who follow the example of Homer"s heroes die bravely (I. xxii. 304):--
Yet not without a struggle let me die, Nor all inglorious; but let some great act, Which future days may hear of, mark my fall.
And another time (O. xv. 494):--
And if there be among you who this day shall meet his doom by sword or arrow slain, e"en let him die! a glorious death is his who for his country falls.
To those who distinguish themselves he distributes gifts (I. ix. 334):--
To other chiefs and kings he meted out their several portions.
And he threatens deserters (I. xv. 348):--
Whom I elsewhere, and from the ships aloof Shall find, my hand shall down him on the spot.
Why is it necessary to speak of the heroes in battle? How differently and variously he makes them give and receive wounds. One he thinks worthy of mention, because he thinks those wounded in front are the more honorable because they prove steadfastness and a desire to abide the shock. Those who are struck in the back or neck were less honorable, since these blows they received in flight. Both of these are mentioned in Homer (I. xii. 288):--
Not in the neck behind, nor in thy back Should fall the blow, but in thy breast in front, Thy courage none might call in doubt Shouldst thou from spear or sword receive a wound.
And again (I. xxii. 213):--
Not in my back will I receive thy spear, But through my heart.
In putting enemies to flight he gives useful advice, not to be busied with the spoil, nor give time for flight, but to press on and pursue (I.
vi. 68):--
Loiter not now behind, to throw yourselves Upon the prey, and bear it to the ships; Let all your aim be now to kill, then Ye may at leisure spoil your slaughtered foe.
There are in his poetry successful deeds achieved by every age, by which every one, no matter who he may be, can be encouraged: the man in the flower of his strength by Achilles, Ajax, and Diomed; by younger ones Antilochus and Meriones; the mature by Idomeneus and Odysseus; the old men by Nestor; and every king by all of these named and by Agamemnon.
Such are in Homer the examples of the discourse and action of civilized life.
Let us see now whether Homer had any familiarity with medicine. That he held the art in high regard is clear from the following (I. xi. 514):--
Worth many a life is his, the skilful leech.
Medical science appears to be the science of disease and health. That it is a science any one can learn from this (O. iv. 23):--
There each one is a leech skilled beyond all men.
That it deals with disease and health (O. iv. 230):--
Many that are healing in the cup, and many baneful,--
he indicates with these things.
Medicine has, too, a theoretical side which reaches the knowledge of particulars by universal reasoning and by inductive method. The parts of this are the study of symptoms and the knowledge of the courses of disease. The active part treating of action and effect; the parts of it diatetic, surgical, medicinal. How did Homer appraise each of these?
That he knew the theoretical side is evident from this (O. iv. 227):--
Medicines of such virtue and so helpful had the daughters of Zeus.
He calls them "of such virtue" because they were prepared by theoretic art.
But the study of symptoms he goes over in the case of Achilles. For he was a disciple of Charon. He first observed, then, the causes of the pestilence which was attacking the Greeks. For he knew that the causes of common diseases were from Apollo, who seems to be the same as the Sun. For he notices the seasons of the year. If these are intemperate, they become the causes of disease. For, in general, the safety and destruction of men are to be ascribed to Apollo, of women to Artemis, i.e. to the Sun and Moon, making them the casters of arrows by reason of the rays they throw out. So dividing the male and female he makes the male of the warmer temperament. On this account, at any rate, he says Telemachus is of this type, "by the guidance of Apollo"; but the daughters of Tyndarus grew up, he says, under the protection of Artemis.
Moreover, to these G.o.ds he attributes death in many places, and among others in the following (I. xxiv. 605):--
The youths, Apollo with his silver bow; The maids, the Archer Queen Diana slew.
Where he relates the rising of the Dog Star, the same is a sign and cause of fever and disease (I. xxii. 30):--
The highest he but sign to mortal man Of evil augury and fiery heat.
He gives the causes of disease where he speaks about the G.o.ds (I. v.
341):--
They eat no bread, they drink no ruddy wine, Thence are they bloodless and exempt from death.
For food, whether dry or humid, is generative of blood. And this nourishes the body; if it is excessive or corrupt, it becomes the cause of disease.