Among these we may reckon many of the marine Algae -- Cladoniae and mosses, which extend over the desert steppes of Northern Asia -- gra.s.ses, and cacti growing p 347 together like the pipes of an organ -- Avicennim and mangroves in the tropics -- and forests of Coniferae and of birches in the plains of the Baltic and in Siberia. This mode of geographical distribution determines, together with the individual form of the vegetable world, the size and type of leaves and flowers, in fact, the princ.i.p.al physiognomy of the district,*
its characteracter being but little, if at all, influenced by the ever-moving forms of animal life, which, by their beauty and diversity, so powerfully affect the feelings of man, whether by exciting the sensations of admiration or horror.
[footnote] *On the physiognomy of plants, see Humboldt, "Anischten der Natur", bd. ii., s. 1-125.
Agricultural nations increase artificially the predominance of social plants, and thus augment, in many parts of the temperate and northern zones, the natural aspect of uniformity; and while their labors tend to the extirpation of some wild plants, they likewise lead to the cultivation of others, which follow the colonist in his most distant migration. The luxuriant zone of the tropics offers the strongest resistance to these changes in the natural distribution of vegetable forms.
Observers who in short periods of time have pa.s.sed over vast tracts of land, and ascended lofty mountains, in which climates were ranged, as it were in strata one above another, must have been early impressed by the regularity with which vegetable forms are distributed. The results yielded by their observations furnished the rough materials for a science, to which no name had as yet been given. The same zones of regions of vegetation which, in the sixteenth century, Cardinal Bembo, when a youth,*described on the declivity of Aetna, were observed on Mount Ararat by Tournefort.
[footnote] *Aetna Dialogus." "Opuscula", Basil., 1556, p. 53, 54. A very beautiful geography of the plants of Mount AEtna has recently been published by Philippi. See "Linnaea", 1832, s. 733.
He ingeniously compared the Alpine flora with the flora of plains situated in different lat.i.tudes, and was the first to observe the influence exercised in mountainous regions, on the distribution of plants by the elevation of the ground above the level of the sea, and by the distance from the poles in flat countries. Menzel, in an inedited work on the flora of j.a.pan, accidentally made use of the term "geography of plants"; and the same expression occurs in the fanciful but graceful work of Bernardin de St.
Pierre, "Etudes de la Nature". A scientific treatment of the subject began, however, only when the geography of plants was intimately a.s.sociated with the study of the distribution p 348 of heat over the surface of the earth, and when the arrangement of vegetable forms in natural families admitted of a numerical estimate being made of the different forms which increase of decrease as we recede from the equator toward the poles, and of the relations in which, in diffrent parts of the earth, each family stood with reference to the whole ma.s.s of phanerogamic indigenous plants of the same region. I consider it a happy circ.u.mstance that, at the time during which I devoted my attention almost exclusively to botanical pursuits, I was led by the aspect of the grand and strongly characterized features of tropical scenery to direct my investigations toward these subjects.
The study of the geographical distribution of animals, regarding which Buffon first advanced general, and, in most instances, very correct views, has been considerably aided in its advance by the progress made in modern times in the geography of plants. The curves of the isothermal lines, and more especially those of the isochimenal lines, correspond with the limits which are seldom pa.s.sed by certain species of plants, and of animals which do not wander far from their fixed habitation either with respect to elevation or lat.i.tude.*
[footnote] *[The following valuable remarks by Professor Forbes, on the correspondence existing between the distribution of existing faunas and floras of the British Islands, and the geological changes that have affected their area, will be read with much interest; they have been copied, by the author"s permission, from the "Survey Report", p. 16: "If the view I have put forward respecting the origin of the flora of the British mountains be true -- and every geological and botanical probability, so far as the are is concerned, favors it -- then must we endeavour to find some more plausible cause than any yet shown for the presence of numerous species of plants, and of some animals, on the higher parts of Alpine ranges in Europe and Asia, specifically identical with animals and plants indigenous in the regions very far north, and not found in the intermediate lowlands. Tournefort first remarked and Humboldt, the great organizer of the science of natural history geography, demonstrated, that zones of elevation on mountains correspond to parallels of lat.i.tude, the higher with the more northern or southern, as the case might be. It is well known that this correspondence is recognized in the general "facies" of the flora and fauna, dependent on generic ident.i.ties. But when announcing and ill.u.s.trating the law that climatal zones of animal and vegetable life are mutually repeated or represented by elevation and lat.i.tude, naturalists have not hitherto sufficiently (if at all) distinguished between the evidence of that law, as exhibited by "representative species" and by "identical". In reality, the former essentially depend on the law, the latter being an "accident" not necessarily dependent upon it, and which has. .h.i.therto not been accounted for. In the case of the Alpine flora of Britain, the evidence of the activity of the law, and the influence of the accident, are inseparable, the law being maintained by a transported flora, for the transmission of which I have shown we can not account by an appeal to unquestionable geological events. In the case of the Alps and Carpathians, and some other mountain ranges, we find the law maintained partly by a representative flora, special in its region, i.e., by specific centers of their own, and partly by an a.s.semblage more or less limited in the several ranges of identical species, these latter in several cases so numerous that ordinary modes of transportation now in action can no more account for their presence than they can for the presence of a Norwegian flora on the British mountains. Now I am prepared to maintain that the same means which introduced a sub-Arctic (now mmountain) flora into Britain, acting at the same epoch, originated the ident.i.ty, as far as it goes, of the Alpine floras of middle Europe and Central Asia; for, now that we know the vast area swept by the glacial sea, including almost the whole of Central and Northern Europe, and belted by land, since greatly uplifted, which then presented to the water"s edge those climatal lconditions for which a sub-Arctic flora -- destined to become Alpine -- was specially organized, the difficulty of deriving such a flora from its paarent north, and of diffusing it over the snowy hills bounding this glacial ocean, vanishes, and the presence of identical species at such distant pooints remain no longer a mystery.
Moreover, when we consider that conditions during the epoch referred to, the undoubted evidences of Continental observers, on the boounds of Asia by Sir Roderick Murchison, in America by Mr. Lyell, Mr. Logan, Captain Bayfield, and others, and that the botanical (and zoological as well) region, essentially northern and Alpine, designated by Professor Schouw that "of saxifrages and mosses," and first in his cla.s.sification, exists now only on the flanks of the great area which suffered such conditions; and that, though similar conditions reappear, the relationship of Alpine and Arctic vegetation in the southern hemisphere, with that in the northern, is entirely maintained by "representative", and not by identical species (the general truth of my explanation of Alpine floras, including identical species, becomes so strong, that the view proposed acquires fair claims to be ranked as a theory, and not considered merely a convenient or bold hypothesis."] -- Tr.
The p 349 elk, for instance, lives in the Scandinavian peninsula, almost ten degrees further north than in the interior of Siberia, where the line of equal winter temperature is so remarkably concave. Plants migrate in the germ; and, in the case of many species, the seeds are furnished with organs adapting them to be conveyed to a distace through the air. When once they have taken root, they become dependent on the soil and on the strata of air surrounding them. Animals, on the contrary, can at pleasure migrate from the equator toward the poles; and this they can more especially doo where the isothermal lines are much inflected, and where hot summers succeed a great degree of winter cold. The royal tiger, which in no respect differs from the Bengal species, penetrates every summer into p 350 the north of Asia as far as the lat.i.tudes of Berlin and Hamburg, a fact of which Ehrenberg and myself have spoken in other works.*
[footnote] *Ehrenberg, in the "Annales des Sciences Naturelles", t. xxi., p. 387, 412; Humboldt, "Asie Centrale", t. i., p. 339-342, and t. iii., p.
96-101.
The grouping or a.s.sociation of diffrent vegetable species, to which we are accustomed to apply the term "Floras", do not appear to me, from what I have observed in different portions of the earth"s surface, to manifest such a predominance of individual families as to justify us in marking the geographical distinctions between the regions of the Umbellatae, of the Solidaginae, of the l.a.b.i.atae, or the Scitamineae. With reference to this subject, my views differ from those of several of my friends, who rank among the most distinguished of the botanists of Germany. The character of the floras of the elevated plateaux of Mexico, New Granada, and Quito, of European Russia, and of Northern Asia, consists, in my opinion, not so much in the relatively larger number of the species presented by one or two natural families, as in the more complicated relations of the coexistence of many families, and in the relative numerical value of their species. The Gramineae and the Cyperaceae undoubtedly predominate in meadow lands and stppes, as do Coniferae, Cupuliferae, and Betulineae in our northern woods; but this predominance of certain forms is only apparent, and owing to the aspect imparted by the social plants. The north of Europe, and that portion of Siberia which is situated to the north of the Altai Mountains, have no greater right to the appellation of a region of Gramineae and Coniferae than have the boundless llanos between the Orinoco and the mountain chain of Caraccas, or the pine forests of Mexico. It is the coexistence of forms which may partially replace each other, and their relative numbers and a.s.sociation, which give rise either to the general impression of luxuriance and diversity, or of poverty and uniformity in the contemplation of the vegetable world.
In this fragmentary sketch of the phenomena of organization, I have ascended from the simplest cellI -- the first manifestation of life -- progressively to higher structures. "The p 351 a.s.sociation of mucous granules const.i.tutes a definitely-formed cytoblase, around which a vesicular membrane forms ia closed well," this cell being either produced from another pre-existing cell,** or being due to a cellular formation, which, as in the case of the fermentation-fungus, is concealed in the obscurity of some unknown chemical process.***
[footnote] *Schleiden, "Ueber die Entwicklungsweise der Pflanzenzellen", in Muller"s "Archiv fur Anatomie und Physiologie", 1838, s. 137-176; also his "Grundzuge der wissenschaftlichen Botanik", th. i., s. 191, and th. ii., s 11. Schwann, "Mikroscopische Untersucungen uber die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen", 1839, s. 45, 220.
Compare also, on similar propagation, Joh. Muller "Physiologie des Menschen", 1840, th. ii., s. 614.
[footnote] **Schleiden, "Grundzuge der wissenschaftlichen Botanik", 1842, th. i., s. 192-197.
[footnote] ***[On cellular formation, see Henfrey"s "Outlines of Structural and Physiological Botany", op. cit., p. 16-22.] -- Tr.
But in a work like the present we can venture on no more than an allusion to the mysteries that involve the question of modes of origin; the geography of animal and vegetable organisms must limit itself to the consideration of germs already developed, of their haabitation and transplantation, either by voluntary or involuntary migrations, their numerical relation, and their distribution over the surface of the earth.
The general picture of nature which I have endeavored to delineate would be incomplete if I did not venture to trace a few of the most marked features of the human race, considered with reference to physical gradations -- to the geographical distribution of contemporaneous types -- to the influence exercised upon man by the forces of nature, and the reciprocal, although weaker action which he in his turn exercises on these natural forces.
Dependent, although in a lesser degree than plants and animals, on the soil, and on the meteorological processes of the atmosphere with which he is surroounded -- escaping more readily from the control of natural forces, by activity of mind and the advance of intellectual cultivation, no less than by his wonderful capacity of adapting himself to all climates -- man every where becomes most essentially a.s.sociated with terrestrial life. It is by these relations that the obscure and much-contested problem of the possibility of one common descent enters into the sphere embraced by a general physical cosmography. The investigation of this problem will impart a n.o.bler, and, if I may so express myself, more purely human interest to the closing pages of this section of my work.
The vast domain of language, in whose varied structure we see mysteriously reflected the destinies of nations, is most intimately a.s.sociated with the affinity of races; and what even slight differences of races may effect is strikingly manifested in the history of the h.e.l.lenic nations in the zenith of their intellectual cultivation. The most important questions of the civilization of mankind are connected with the ideas of races, p 352 community of language, and adherence to one original direction of the intellectual and moral faculties.
As long as attention was directed solely to the extremes in varieties of color and of form, and to the vividness of the first impression of the senses, the observer was naturally disposed to regard races rather as originally different species than as mere varieties. The permanence of certain types* in the midst of the most hostile influences, especially of climate, appeared to favor such a view, notwithstanding the shortness of the interval of time from which the historical evidence was derived.
[footnote] *Tacitus, in his speculations on the inhabitants of Britain ("Agricola", cap. ii.), distinguishes with much judgment between that which may be owing to the local climatic relations, and that which, in the immigrating races, may be owing to the unchangeable influence of a hereditary and transmitted type. "Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerunt, indigenae an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum coompertum. Habitus corporis varii, alque ex eo argumenta; namque rutilae Caledoniam habitantium comae, magni artus Germanicam originem adseverant. Silu ram colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania, Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque cedes occupa.s.se fidem faciunt: proximi Gallis, et similes sunt: seu durante originis vi; seu procurrentibus in diversa terris, positio coeli corporibus habitum dedit." Regarding the persistency of types of conformation in the hot and cold regions of the earth, and in the mountainous districts of the New Continent, see my "Relation Historique", t. i., p. 498, 503, and t. ii., p. 572, 574.
In my opinion, however, more powerful reasons can be advanced in support of the theory of the unity of the human race, as, for instance, in the many intermediate gradations* in the color of the skin and in the form of the skull, which have been made known to us in recent times by the rapid progress of geographical knowledge -- the a.n.a.logies presented by the varieties in the species of many wild and domesticated animals -- and the more correct observations collected regarding the limits of fecundity in hybrids.**
[footnote] On the American races generally, see the magnificent work of Samuel George Morton, ent.i.tled "Crania Americana", 1839, p. 62, 86; and on the skulls brought by Pentland from the highlands ot t.i.ticaca, see the "Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Science", vol. v., 1834, p. 475; also Alcide d"Orbigny, "L"homme Americain considere sous ses rapports Physiol. et Mor.", 1839, p. 221; and the work by Prince Maximilian of Wied, which is well worthy of notice for the admirable ethnographical remarks in which it abounds, ent.i.tled "Reise in das Innere von Nordamerika" (1839).
[footnote] ** Rudolph Wagner, "Ueber Blendlinge und b.a.s.t.a.r.derzeugung", in his notes to the German translation of Prichard"s "Physical History of Mankind", vol. i., p. 138-150.
The greater number of the contrasts which were formerly supposed to exist, have disappeared before the laborious researches of Tiedemann on the brain of negroes and of Europeans, and the anatomical investigations p 353 of Vrolik and Weber on the form of the pelvis. On comparing the dark-colored African nations, on whose physical history the admirable work of Prichard has thrown so much light, with the races inhabiting the islands of the South-Indian and West-Australian archipelago, and with the Papuas and Alfourous (Haroforas, Endamenes), we see that a black skin, woolly hair, and a negro-like cast of countenance are not necessarily connected together.*
[footnote] *Prichard, op. cit., vol. ii., p. 324.
So long as only a small portion of the earth was known to the Western nations, partial views necessarily predominated, and tropical heat and a black skin consequently appeared inseparable. "The Ethiopians," said the ancient tragic poet Theodectes of Phaselis,* "are colored by the near sun-G.o.d in his course with a sooty l.u.s.ter, and their hair is dried and crisped with the heat of his rays."
[footnote] *Onesicritus, in Strabo, xv., p. 690, 695, Casaub. Welcker, "Griechische TraG.o.dien", abth. iii., s. 1078, conjectures that the verses of Theodectes, cited by Strabo, are taken from a list tragedy, which probably bore the t.i.tle of "Memnon."
The campaigns of Alexander, which gave rise to so many new ideas regarding physical geography, likewise first excited a discussion on the problematical influence of climate on races. "Families of animals and plants," writes one of the greatest anatomists of the day, Johannes Muller, in his n.o.ble and comprehensive work, "Physiologie des Menschen", "undergo, within certain limitations peculiar to the different races and species, various modifications in their distribution over the surface of the earth, propagating these variations as organic types of species.*
[footnote] *[In ill.u.s.tration of this, the conclusions of Professor Edward Forbes respecting the origin and diffusion of the British flora may be cited. See the "Survey Memoir" already quoted, "On the Connection between the Distribution of the existing Fauna and Flora of the British Islands, etc.", p. 64. "1. The flora and fauna, terrestrial and marine, of the British islands and seas, have originated, so far as that area is concerned, since the melocene epoch. 2. The a.s.semblages of animals and plants compositing that fauna and flora did not appear in the area they now inhabit simultaneously, but at several distinct points in time. 3. Both the fauna and flora of the British islands and seas are composed partly of species which, either permanently or for a time, appeared in that area before the glacial epoch; partly of such as inhabited it during that epoch; and in great part of those which did not appear there until afterward, and whose appearance on the earth was coeval with the elevation of the bed of the glacial sea and the consequent climatal changes. 4. The greater part of the terrestrial animals and flowering plants now inhabiting the British islands are members of specific centers beyond their area, and have migrated to it over continuous land before, during, or after the glacial epoch. 5.
The climatal conditions of the area under discussion, and north, east, and west of it, were severer during the glacial epoch, when a great part of the s.p.a.ce now occupied by the British isles was under water, than they are now or were before; but there is good reason to believe that, so far from those conditions having continued severe, or having gradually diminished in severity southward of Britain, the cold region of the glacial epoch came directly into contact with a region of more southern and thermal character than that in which the most southern beds of glacial drift are now to be met with. 6. This state of things did not materially differ from that now existing, under corresponding lat.i.tudes, in the North American, Atlantic, and Arctic seas, and on their bounding sh.o.r.es. 7. The Alpine floras of Europe and Asia, so far as they are identical with the flora of the Arctic and sub-Arctic zones of the Old World, are fragments of a flora which was diffused from the north, either by means of transport not now in action on the temperate coasts of Europe, or over continuous land which no longer exists. The deep sea fauna is in like manner a fragment of the general glacial fauna. 8. The floras of the islands of the Atlantic region, between the Gulf-weed Bank and the Old World, are fragments of the Great Mediterranean flora, anciently diffused over a land consistuted out of the upheaval and never again subjerged bed of the (shallow) Meiocene Sea. This great flora, in the epoch anterior to, and probably, in part, during the glacial period, had a greater extension northward than it now presents. 9.
The termination of the glacial epoch in Europe was marked by a recession of an Arctic fauna and flora northward, and of a fauna and flora of the Mediterranean type southward; and in the inters.p.a.ce thus produced there appeared on land the Germanic fauna and flora, and in the sea that fauna termed Celtic. 10. The causes which thus preceded the appearance of a new a.s.semblage of organized beings were the destruction of many species of animals, and probably also of plants, either forms of extremely local distribution, or such as were not capable of enduring many changes of conditions -- species, in short, with very limited capacity for horizontal or vertical diffusion. 11. All the changes before, during, and after the glacial epoch appear to have been gradual, and not sudden, so that no marked line of demarkation can be drawn between the creatures inhabiting the same element and the same locality during two proximate periods."] -- Tr.
The different races of mankind are forms of one sole species, by the union of two of whose members descendants are propagated. They are not different species of a genus, since in that case their hybrid descendants would remain unfruitful. But whether the human races have descended from several primitive races of men, or from one alone, is a question that can not be determined from experience."*
[footnote] *Joh. Muller, "Physiologie des Menschen", bd. ii., s. 768.
Geographical investigations regarding the ancient "seat", the so-called "cradle of the human race", are not devoid of a mythical p 355 character. "We do not know," says Wilhelm von Humboldt, in an unpublished work "On the Varieties of Languages and Nations", "either from history or from authentic tradition, any period of time in which the human race has not been divided into social groups. Whether the gregarious condition was original, or of subsequent occurrence, we have no historic evidence to show.
The separate mythical relations found to exist independently of one another in different parts of the earth, appear to refute the first hypothesis, and concur in ascribing the generation of the whole human race to the union of one pair. The general prevalence of this myth has cause it to be regarded as a traditionary record transmitted from the primitive man to his descendants. But this very circ.u.mstance seems rather to prove that it has no historical foundation, but has simply arisen from an ident.i.ty in the mode of intellectual conception, which has every where led man to adopt the same conclusion regarding identical phenomena; in the same manner as many myths have doubtlessly arisen, not from any historical connection existing between them, but rather from an ident.i.ty in human thought and imagination. Another evidence in favor of the purely mythical nature of this belief is afforded by the fact that the first origin of mankind -- a phenomenon which is wholly beyond the sphere of experience -- is explained in perfect conformity with existing views, being considered on the principle of the colonization of some desert island or remote mountainous valley at a period when mankind had already existed for thousands of years. It is in vain that we direct our thoughts to the solution of the great problem of the first origin, since man is too intimately a.s.sociated with his own race and with the relations of time to conceive of the existence of an individual independently of a preceding generation and age. A solution of those difficult questions, which can not be determined by inductive reasoning or by experience -- whether the belief in this presumed traditional condition be actually based on historical evidence, or whether mankind inhabited the earth in gregarious a.s.sociations from the origin of the race -- can not, therefore, be determined from philological data, and yet its elucidation ought not to be sought from other sources."