THE BASILISK.
The Serpent"s gem--The Basilisk"s eye--Basiliscus mitratus-- House-snakes in Russia and Germany--King-snakes--Heraldic dragon--Henry III.--Melusina--The Laidley Worm--Victorious dragons--Pendragon--Merlin and Vortigern--Medicinal dragons.
A Dragoon once presented himself before Frederick the Great and offered the king a small pebble, which, he said, had been cut from the head of a king-snake, and would no doubt preserve the throne. Frederick probably trusted more to dragoons than dragons, but he kept the little curiosity, little knowing, perhaps, that it would be as prolific of legends as the c.o.c.k"s egg, to which it is popularly traceable, in c.o.c.katrices (whose name may have given rise to the c.o.c.k-fables) or basilisks. It has now taken its place in German folklore that Frederick owed his greatness to a familiar kept near him in the form of a basilisk. But there are few parts of the world where similar legends might not spring up and coil round any famous reputation. An Indian newspaper, the Lawrence Gazette, having mentioned that the ex-king of Oudh is a collector of snakes, adds--"Perhaps he wishes to become possessed of the precious jewel which some serpents are said to contain, or of that species of snake by whose means, it is said, a person can fly in the air." Dr. Dennys, in whose work on Chinese Folklore this is quoted, finds the same notion in China. In one story a foreigner repeatedly tries to purchase a butcher"s bench, but the butcher refuses to sell it, suspecting there must be some hidden value in the article; for this reason he puts the bench by, and when the foreigner returns a year afterwards, learns from him that lodged in the bench was a snake, kept alive by the blood soaking through it, which held a precious gem in its mouth--quite worthless after the snake was dead. Cursing his stupidity at having put the bench out of use, the butcher cut it open and found the serpent dead, holding in its mouth something like the eye of a dried fish.
Here we have two items which may only be accidental, and yet, on the other hand, possibly possess significance. The superior knowledge about the serpent attributed to a "foreigner" may indicate that such stories in China are traditionally alien, imported with the Buddhists; and the comparison of the dead gem to an eye may add a little to the probabilities that this magical jewel, whether in head of toad or serpent, is the reptile"s eye as seen by the glamour of human eyes. The eye of the basilisk is at once its wealth-producing, its fascinating, and its paralysing talisman, though all these beliefs have their various sources and their several representations in mythology. That it was seen as a gem was due, as I think, to the jewelled skin of most serpents, which gradually made them symbols of riches; that it was believed able to fascinate may be attributed to the general principles of illusion already considered; but its paralysing power, its evil eye, connects it with a notion, found alike in Egypt and India, that the serpent kills with its eye. Among Sanskrit words for serpent are "drig-visha" and "drishti-visha"--literally "having poison in the eye."
While all serpents were lords and guardians of wealth, certain of them were crested, or had small horns, which conveyed the idea of a crowned and imperial snake, the basiliskos. Naturalists have recognised this origin of the name by giving the same (Basiliscus mitratus) to a genus of Iguanidae, remarkable for a membranous crest not only on the occiput but also along the back, which this lizard can raise and depress at pleasure. But folklore, the science of the ignorant, had established the same connection by alleging that the basilisk is hatched from the egg of a black c.o.c.k,--which was the peasant"s explanation of the word c.o.c.katrice. De Plancy traces one part of the belief to a disease which causes the c.o.c.k to produce a small egg-like substance; but the resemblance between its comb and the crests of serpent and frog [236] was the probable link between them; while the ancient eminence of the c.o.c.k as the bird of dawn relegated the origin of the basilisk to a very exceptional member of the family--a black c.o.c.k in its seventh year. The useful fowl would seem, however, to have suffered even so slightly mainly through a phonetic misconception. The word "c.o.c.katrice" is "crocodile" transformed. We have it in the Old French "cocatrix," which again is from the Spanish "cocotriz," meaning "crocodile,"--krokodeilos; which Herodotus, by the way, uses to denote a kind of lizard, and whose sanct.i.ty has extended from the Nile to the Danube, where folklore declares that the skeleton of the lizard presents an image of the pa.s.sion of Christ, and it must never be harmed. Thus "c.o.c.katrice" has nothing to do with "c.o.c.k" or "coq," though possibly the coincidence of the sound has marred the ancient fame of the "Bird of Dawn." Indeed black c.o.c.ks have been so generally slain on this account that they were for a long time rare, and so the basilisks had a chance of becoming extinct. There were fabulous creatures enough, however, to perpetuate the basilisk"s imaginary powers, some of which will be hereafter considered. We may devote the remainder of this chapter to the consideration of a variant of dragon-mythology, which must be cleared out of our way in apprehending the Dragon. This is the agathodemonic or heraldic Dragon, which has inherited the euphemistic characters of the treasure-guarding and crowned serpent.
In Slavonic legend the king-serpent plays a large part, and innumerable stories relate the glories of some peasant child that, managing to secure a tiny gem from his crown, while the reptilian monarch was bathing, found the jewel daily surrounded with new treasures. This is the same serpent which, gathering up the myths of lightning and of comets, flies through many German legends as the red Drake, Kolbuk, Alp, or Alberflecke, dropping gold when it is red, corn if blue, and yielding vast services and powers to those who can magically master it. The harmless serpents of Germany were universally invested with agathodemonic functions, though they still bear the name that relates them to Ahi, viz., unken. Of these household-snakes Grimm and Simrock give much information. It is said that in fields and houses they approach solitary children and drink milk from the dish with them. On their heads they wear golden crowns, which they lay down before drinking, and sometimes forget when they retire. They watch over children in the cradle, and point out to their favourites where treasures are hidden. To kill them brings misfortune. If the parents surprise the snake with the child and kill it, the child wastes away. Once the snake crept into the mouth of a pregnant woman, and when the child was born the snake was found closely coiled around its neck, and could only be untwined by a milk-bath; but it never left the child"s side, ate and slept with it, and never did it harm. If such serpents left a house or farm, prosperity went with them. In some regions it is said a male and female snake appear whenever the master or mistress of the house is about to die, and the legends of the Unken sometimes relapse into the original fear out of which they grew. Indeed, their vengeance is everywhere much dreaded, while their grat.i.tude, especially for milk, is as imperishable as might be expected from their ancestor"s quarrel with Indra about the stolen cows. In the Gesta Romanorum it is related that a milkmaid was regularly approached at milking-time by a large snake to which she gave milk. The maid having left her place, her successor found on the milking-stool a golden crown, on which was inscribed "In Grat.i.tude." The crown was sent to the milkmaid who had gone, but from that time the snake was never seen again. [237]
In England serpents were mastered by the vows of a saintly Christian. The Knight Bran in the Isle of Wight is said to have picked up the c.o.c.katrice egg, to have been pursued by the serpents, which he escaped by vowing to build St. Lawrence Church in that island,--the egg having afterwards brought him endless wealth and uniform success in combat. With the manifold fables concerning the royal dragon would seem to blend traditions of the astrological, celestial, and lightning serpents. But these would coincide with a development arising from the terrestrial worms and their heroic slayers. The demonic dragon with his terrible eye might discern from afar the advent of his predestined destroyer. It might seek to devour him in infancy. As the comet might be deemed a portent of some powerful prince born on earth, so it might be a compliment to a royal family, on the birth of a prince, to report that a dragon had been seen. Nor would it be a long step from this office of the dragon as the herald of greatness to placing that monster on banners. From these banners would grow sagas of dragons encountered and slain. The devices might thus multiply. Some process of this kind would account for the entirely good reputation of the dragon in China and j.a.pan, where it is the emblem of all national grandeur. It would also appear to underlie the proud t.i.tles of the Pythian Apollo and Bellerophon, gained from the monsters they were said to have slain. The city of Worms takes its name from the serpent instead of its slayer. [238]
Pendragon, in the past--and even our dragoon of the present--are names in which the horrors of the monster become transformed in the hero"s fame. The dragon, says Mr. Hardwicke, was the standard of the West Saxons, and of the English previous to the Norman Conquest. It formed one of the supporters of the royal arms borne by all the Tudor monarchs, with the exception of Queen Mary, who subst.i.tuted the eagle. Several of the Plantagenet kings and princes inscribed a figure of the dragon on their banners and shields. Peter Langtoffe says, at the battle of Lewis, fought in 1264, "The king schewed forth his schild, his dragon full austere." Another authority says the said king (Henry III.) ordered to be made "a dragon in the manner of a banner, of a certain red silk embroidered with gold; its tongue like a flaming fire must always seem to be moving; its eyes must be made of sapphire, or of some other stone suitable for that purpose." [239]
It will thus be seen that an influence has been introduced into dragon-lore which has no relation whatever to the demon itself. This will explain those variants of the legend of Melusina--the famous woman-serpent--which invest her with romance. Melusina, whose indiscreet husband glanced at her in forbidden hours, when she was in her serpent shape, was long the glory of the Chateau de Lusignan, where her cries announced the approaching death of her descendants. There is a peasant family still dwelling in Fontainebleau Forest who claim to be descended from Melusina; and possibly some instance of this kind may have dropped like a seed into the memory of the author of "Elsie Venner" to reappear in one of the finest novels of our generation. The corresponding sentiment is found surrounding the dragon in the familiar British legend of the Laidley [240] Worm. The king of Northumberland brought home a new Queen, who was also a sorceress, and being envious of the beauty of her step-daughter, changed that poor princess into the worm which devastated all Spindleton Heugh. For seven miles every green thing was blighted by its venom, and seven cows had to yield their daily supplies of milk. Meanwhile the king and his son mourned the disappearance of the princess. The young prince fitted out a ship to go and slay the dragon. The wicked Queen tries unsuccessfully to prevent the expedition. The prince leaps from his ship into the shallow sea, and wades to the rock around which the worm lay coiled. But as he drew near the monster said to him:
Oh, quit thy sword, and bend thy bow, And give me kisses three; If I"m not won ere the sun goes down, Won I shall never be.
He quitted his sword and bent his bow, He gave her kisses three; She crept into a hole a worm, But out stept a ladye.
In the end the prince managed to have the wicked Queen transformed into a toad, which in memory thereof, as every Northumbrian boy knows, spits fire to this day: but it is notable that the sorceress was not transformed into a dragon, as the story would probably have run if the dragon form had not already been detached from its original character, and by many n.o.ble a.s.sociations been rendered an honourable though fearful shape for maidens like this princess and like Melusina.
In the same direction point the legends which show dragons as sometimes victorious over their heroic a.s.sailants. Geoffrey of Monmouth so relates of King Morvidus of Northumbria, who encountered a dragon that came from the Irish Sea, and was last seen disappearing in the monster"s jaws "like a small fish." A more famous instance is that of Beowulf, whose Anglo-Saxon saga is summed up by Professor Morley as follows:--"Afterward the broad land came under the sway of Beowulf. He held it well for fifty winters, until in the dark night a dragon, which in a stone mound watched a h.o.a.rd of gold and cups, won mastery. It was a h.o.a.rd heaped up in sin, its lords were long since dead; the last earl before dying hid it in the earth-cave, and for three hundred winters the great scather held the cave, until some man, finding by chance a rich cup, took it to his lord. Then the den was searched while the worm slept; again and again when the dragon awoke there had been theft. He found not the man but wasted the whole land with fire; nightly the fiendish air-flyer made fire grow hateful to the sight of men. Then it was told to Beowulf.... He sought out the dragon"s den and fought with him in awful strife. One wound the poison-worm struck in the flesh of Beowulf." Whereof Beowulf died.
Equally significant is the legend that when King Arthur had embarked at Southampton on his expedition against Rome, about midnight he saw in a dream "a bear flying in the air, at the noise of which all the sh.o.r.es trembled; also a terrible dragon, flying from the west, which enlightened the country with the brightness of its eyes. When these two met they had a dreadful fight, but the dragon with its fiery breath burned the bear which a.s.saulted him, and threw him down scorched to the earth." This vision was taken to augur Arthur"s victory. The father of Arthur had already in a manner consecrated the symbol, being named Uther Pendragon (dragon"s head). On the death of his brother Aurelius, it was told "there appeared a star of wonderful magnitude and brightness," darting forth a ray, at the end of which was a globe of fire, in form of a dragon, out of whose mouth issued two rays, one of which seemed to stretch out itself towards the Irish Sea, and ended in seven lesser rays." Merlin interpreted this phenomenon to mean that Uther would be made king and conquer various regions; and after his first victory Uther had two golden dragons made, one of which he presented to Winchester Cathedral, retaining the other to attend him in his wars.
In the legend of Merlin and Vortigern we find the Dragon so completely developed into a merely warrior-like symbol that its moral character has to be determined by its colour. As in the two armies of serpents seen by Zoroaster, in Persian legends, which fought in the air, the victory of the white over the black foreshowing the triumph of Ormuzd over Ahriman, the tyranny of Vortigern is represented by a red dragon, while Aurelius and Uther are the two heads of a white dragon. Merlin, about to be buried alive, in pursuance of the astrologer"s declaration to Vortigern that so only would his ever-falling wall stand firm, had revealed that the recurring disaster was caused by the struggle of these two dragons underground. When the monsters were unearthed they fought terribly, until the white one
Hent the red with all his might, And to the ground he him cast, And, with the fire of his blast, Altogether brent the red, That never of him was founden shred; But dust upon the ground he lay.
The white dragon vanished and was seen no more; but the tyrant Vortigern fulfilled the fate of the red dragon, being burnt in his castle near Salisbury. These two dragons met again, however, as red and white roses.
Many developments corresponding to these might be cited. One indeed bears a startling resemblance to our English legends. Of King Nuat Meiamoun, whose conquest of Egypt is placed by G. Maspero about B.C. 664-654, the Ethiopian "Stele of the Dream" relates:--"His Majesty beheld a dream in the night, two snakes, one to his right, the other to his left, (and) when His Majesty awoke ... he said: "Explain these things to me on the moment," and lo! they explained it to him, saying: "Thou wilt have the Southern lands, and seize the Northern, and the two crowns will be put on thy head, (for) there is given unto thee the earth in all its width and its breadth." These two snakes were probably suggested by the uraei of the Egyptian diadem.
Beyond the glory reflected upon a monster from his conqueror, there would be reason why the alchemist and the wizard should encourage that aspect of the dragon. The more perilous that Gorgon whose blood Esculapius used, the more costly such medicament; while, that the remedy may be advantageous, the monster must not be wholly destructive. This is so with the now destructive now preservative forces of nature, and how they may blend in the theories, and subserve the interests, of pretenders is well shown in a German work on Alchemy (1625) quoted by Mr. Hardwicke. "There is a dragon lives in the forest, who has no want of poison; when he sees the sun or fire he spits venom, which flies about fearfully. No living animal can be cured of it; even the basilisk does not equal him. He who can properly kill this serpent has overcome all his danger. His colours increase in death; physic is produced from his poison, which he entirely consumes, and eats his own venomous tail. This must be accomplished by him, in order to produce the n.o.blest balm. Such great virtue as we will point out herein that all the learned shall rejoice."
It will be readily understood that these traditions and fables would combine to "hedge about a king" by ascribing to him familiarity with a monster so formidable to common people, and even investing him with its attributes. The dragon"s name, drakon, derived from the Sanskrit word for serpent (drig-visha), came to mean "the thing that sees." While this gave rise to many legends of praeternatural powers of vision gained by tasting or bathing in a dragon"s blood, as in the poem of Siegfried; or from waters it guarded, as "Eye Well,"
in which Guy"s dragon dipped its tail to recover from wounds; the Sanskrit sense of eye-poisoning was preserved in legends of occult and dangerous powers possessed by kings,--one of the latest being the potent evil eye popularly ascribed in Italy to the late Pius IX. But these stories are endless; the legends adduced will show the sense of all those which, if unexplained, might interfere with our clear insight into the dragon itself, whose further a.n.a.lysis will prove it to be wholly bad,--the concentrated terrors of nature.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE DRAGON"S EYE.
The Eye of Evil--Turner"s Dragons--Cloud-phantoms--Paradise and the Snake--Prometheus and Jove--Art and Nature--Dragon forms: Anglo-Saxon, Italian, Egyptian, Greek, German--The modern conventional Dragon.
The etymologies of the words Dragon and Ophis given in the preceding chapter, ideally the same, both refer to powers of the serpent which it does not possess in nature,--the praeternatural vision and the glance that kills. The real nature of the snake is thus overlaid; we have now to deal with the creation of another world.
There are various conventionalised types of the Dragon, but through them all one feature is constant,--the idealised serpent. Its presence is the demonic or supernatural sign. The heroic dragon-slayer must not be supposed to have wrestled with mere flesh and blood, in whatever powerful form. The combat which immortalises him is waged with all the pains and terrors of earth and heaven concentrated and combined in one fearful form.
Impossible and phantasmal as was this form in nature, its mystical meaning in the human mind was terribly real. It was this Eye of anti-human nature which filled man with dismay, and conjured up the typical phantom. It was this Pain, purposed and purposing, the Agony of far-searching vision, subtlest skill, silently creeping, winged, adapted to meet his every device with a cleverer device, which gradually impressed mankind with belief in a general principle of antagonism to human happiness.
It is only as a combination that any dragon form is miraculous. Every const.i.tuent feature and factor of it is in nature, but here they are rolled together in one pandemonic expression and terror. Yet no such form loses its relations with nature: it is lightning and tempest, fever-bearing malaria and fire, venom and fang, slime and jungle, all the ferocities of the earth, air, and heavens, gathering to their fatal artistic force, and waylaying man at every step in his advance. In Turner"s picture of Apollo slaying the Python there is a marvellous suggestion of the natural conceptions from which the dragon was evolved. The fearful folds of the monster, undulating with mound and rock on which he lies, at points almost blend with tangle of bushes and the jagged chaos amid which he stretches. The hard, wild, cruel aspects of inanimate nature seem here and there rankly swelling to horrible life, as yet but half-distinguishable from the stony-hearted matrix; the crag begins to coil and quiver, the jungle puts forth in claws; but above all appear the monstrous EYES, in which the forces of pain, hardship, obstacle have at last acquired purpose and direction. The G.o.d confronts them with eyes yet keener; his arrow, feathered with eyebeams, has reached its mark, straight between the monster"s eyes; but there is no more anger in his face than might mar the calm strength of a gardener clearing away the stone and thicket that make the const.i.tuent parts of Python.
If we turn now to the neighbouring picture in the National Gallery by the same artist, the Hesperian Gardens and their Guard, we behold the Dragon on his high crag outlining and vitalising not only the edge of rock but also the sky it meets. His breath steams up into cloud. The heavens also have their terrors, which take on eyes and coils. On the line of the horizon were hung the pictures of the primitive art-gallery. Imagination painted them with brush dipped now in blackness of the storm, now in fires of the lightning or the sunset, but the forms were born of experience, of earthly struggle, defeat, and victory.
As I write these words, I lay aside my pen to look across a little lake amid the lonely hills of Wales to a sunset which is flooding the sky with glory. Through the almost greenish sky the wind is bearing fantastic clouds, that sometimes take the shape of chariots, in which cloud-veiled forms are seated, and now great birds with variegated plumage, all hastening as it were to some gathering-place of aerial G.o.ds. Beneath a long bar of maroon-tint stretches a sea of yellow light, on the hither side of which is set a garden of fleecy trees touched with golden fruit. Amid them plays a fountain of changing colours. On the left has stood, fast as a mountain range, a ma.s.s of dark-blue cloud with uneven peaks; suddenly a pink faint glow shines from behind that leaden ma.s.s, and next appears, sinuous with its long indented top, the mighty folds of a fiery serpent. Nay, its head is seen, its yawning lacertine jaws, its tinted crest. It is sleepless Ladon on his high barrier keeping watch and ward over the Hesperian garden.
Juno set him there, but he is the son of Ge,--the earth. The tints of heaven invest and transform, and in a sense create him; but he would never have been born mythologically had it not been that in this world stings hover near all sweetness, danger environs beauty, and, as Plato said, "Good things come hard." The grace and l.u.s.tre of the serpent with his fatal fang preceded him, and all the perils that lurk beneath things fair and fascinating. So far there is nothing essentially moral or unmoral about him. This dragon is a shape designed by primitive meteorology and metaphysics together. Man has asked what is so, and this is the answer: he has not yet asked why it is so, whether it ought to be so, and whether it may not be otherwise. The challenge has not yet been given, the era of combat not yet arrived. The panoplied guard and ally of G.o.ds as unmoral as himself has yet to be transformed under the touch of the religious sentiment, and expelled from the heaven of n.o.bler deities as a dragon cast down, deformed, and degraded for ever.
As thought goes on, such allies compromise their employers; the creator"s work reflects the creator"s character; and after many timorous ages we find the dragon-guarded deities going down with their cruel defenders. It is not without significance that in the Sanskrit dictionary the most ancient of all words for G.o.d, Asura, has for its primary meaning "demon" or "devil:" the G.o.ds and dragons united to churn the ocean for their own wealth, and in the end they were tarred with one brush. I have already described in the beginning of this work the degradation of deities, and need here barely recall to the reader"s memory the forces which operated to that result. The bearing of that force upon the celestial or paradise-guarding Serpent is summed up in one quatrain of Omar Khayyam:--
O Thou who man of baser earth didst make, And e"en in Paradise devised the Snake; For all the sin wherewith the face of man Is blackened, man"s forgiveness give--and take!
The heart of humanity antic.i.p.ated its logic by many ages, and, long before the daring genius of the Persian poet wrote this immortal epitaph on the divine allies of the Serpent, heroes had given battle to the whole fraternity. Nay, in their place had arisen a new race of G.o.ds, whose theoretical omnipotence was gladly surrendered in the interest of their righteousness; and there was now war in heaven; the dragon and his allies were cast down, and man was now free to fight them as enemies of the G.o.ds as well as himself. Woe henceforth to any G.o.ds suspected of taking sides with the dragon in this man"s life-and-death struggle with the ferocities of nature, and with his own terrors reflected from them! The legend of Prometheus was their unconsciously-given "notice to quit," though it waited many centuries for its great interpreter. It is Goethe who alone has seen how pale and weak grow Jove"s fireworks before the thought-thunderbolts of the artist, launched far beyond the limitations that chain him in nature. G.o.ds are even yet going down in many lands before the sublime sentence of Prometheus:--
Curtain thy heavens, thou Jove, with clouds and mist, And, like a boy that moweth thistles down, Unloose thy spleen on oaks and mountain-tops; Yet canst thou not deprive me of my earth, Nor of my hut, the which thou didst not build, Nor of my hearth, whose little cheerful flame Thou enviest me!
I know not aught within the universe More slight, more pitiful than you, ye G.o.ds!
Who nurse your majesty with scant supplies Of offerings wrung from fear, and muttered prayers, And needs must starve, were"t not that babes and beggars Are hope-besotted fools!
When I was yet a child, and knew not whence My being came, nor where to turn its powers, Up to the sun I bent my wildered eye, As though above, within its glorious...o...b.. There dwelt an ear to listen to my plaint, A heart, like mine, to pity the oppressed.
Who gave me succour Against the t.i.tans in their tyrannous might?
Who rescued me from death--from slavery?
Thou!--thou, my soul, burning with hallowed fire, Thou hast thyself alone achieved it all!
Yet didst thou, in thy young simplicity, Glow with misguided thankfulness to him That slumbers on in idlenesse there above!
I reverence thee?
Wherefore? Hast thou ever Lightened the sorrows of the heavy laden?
Thou ever stretch thy hand to still the tears Of the perplexed in spirit?
Was it not Almighty Time, and ever-during Fate-- My lords and thine--that shaped and fashioned me Into the MAN I am?
Belike it was thy dream That I should hate life--fly to wastes and wilds, For that the buds of visionary thought Did not all ripen into goodly flowers?