(2) _Liquid Matter_, which may be described as Substance, the parts of which have a free motion among themselves, and easily yield to impression, such as water, mola.s.ses, etc., the degree of fluidity ranging from some liquids that flow very slowly, such as hot pitch, up to others that flow very freely, such as water, wine, etc., the property of fluidity being also shared by the next higher cla.s.s, which is called:
(3) _Aeriform Matter_, which is Substance in the form of "elastic fluid," such as air, gas, vapor, etc.; and
(4) _Radiant Matter_, which is of recent recognition, and which is an ultra-gaseous form of Substance, utterly unlike anything ever before known, consisting of the tiniest particles of "corpuscles" of Substance finer and more subtle than the rarest form of atomic substance known to Science.
The three cla.s.ses are well represented by (1) Earth (solid); (2) Water (liquid); (3) Air (aeriform); (4) The Corpuscles or Electrons, or particles of electrified substance, first noticed in connection with the X Rays, Radium, etc.
But it must be remembered that these four cla.s.ses of Substance are not fixed or permanent--on the contrary they are changeable either under pressure, when subjected to heat, or under the influence of electricity, etc. In fact the word "condition" is more applicable than the term "cla.s.s." The condition or cla.s.s of a particle of Substance may be changed into another cla.s.s or condition by the application of the agencies above named. The same substance may exist in two or three cla.s.ses, under different circ.u.mstances. Solids may be changed into liquids, and liquids into gases, and _vice versa_. Metals may be melted, then changed into gas, according to the degree of heat applied. Liquids may be changed into vapor by the application of heat, or into solids by the withdrawal of heat.
For an example we may turn to Water, which is a solid in the condition of ice; a liquid in the condition of water; and steam in the condition of vapor. Quicksilver is a metal which is in a liquid condition in our ordinary temperature, but which becomes a solid when subjected to a very low degree of temperature, and may be transformed into a gas, under a high degree of heat. Air is a vapor in our ordinary temperature, but has been transformed into "liquid air" under tremendous pressure, which produced a very low degree of temperature, and, theoretically, it may be transformed into a solid under a sufficiently low degree of temperature, although so far, Science has not been able to produce a degree of cold sufficient to "freeze" the liquid air. It is all a matter of "freeze," "melt," and "evaporate," in all forms of Substance--and any substance, at least theoretically, is capable of being subjected to any of the three conditions just named, and being manifested in the respective conditions, of Solid, Liquid, and Aeriform.
This may actually be accomplished with the majority of substances at this time, although in some instances we are not able to produce a sufficiently high temperature to "melt and evaporate" certain solid substances, on the one hand, or a sufficiently low degree of temperature to "liquify" or "freeze solid" certain vapors. But the intense heat of the centre of the earth is able to melt rocks, and show them as liquid lava flowing from volcanoes, and Science teaches that the solid Substance of the Earth, and other planets, suns, etc., existed in the shape of a vapor at one time, and would again take on that condition in case of a collision with another great body, which convert motion into intense heat that would first melt, and then vaporize every solid particle of which the earth is composed.
If the sun"s heat were completely to die out, the cold would be so intense that the air around the earth, and all the gases and vapors, would be frozen to solids. In physics the term "gas" is generally applied to a substance that is aeriform in our ordinary temperature, but which may be liquefied in a low temperature; the term "vapor" being generally applied to the aeriform condition of substances that are solid or liquid in our ordinary temperatures, but which may be "evaporated" by heat, and thus transformed into an aeriform condition, resuming their original form upon cooling. These terms, however, are technical, and practically there is no difference between a gas and a vapor.
In the above statements regarding the possibility of the transformation of each of the several forms of Substance, into other forms, the reference has been applied only to the three better known forms, _i.e._, Solid, Liquid and Aeriform. The fourth form or state of Substance, known as Radiant Matter, is of too recent discovery to admit of its properties being accurately observed. The best and latest opinion of Science, however, is that it const.i.tutes what may be called "Primal Matter"--that is substance from which all other forms, states, kinds and varieties of Substance arise--the "stuff" from which they are manufactured. Science seems to be discarding the Ether theory of the Origin of Matter, in favor of this "Primal Matter."
Physical Science divides Substance into Ma.s.ses, Molecules, and Atoms--that is, the old Physical Science did, but the later investigators now see that even the Atom may be sub-divided. But the old terms may as well be used, at least for the time being. Let us consider these divisions.
_A "Ma.s.s"_ is a quant.i.ty of Substance considered as a whole--but which is composed of a collection or combination of parts (molecules.) A lump of coal; a piece of iron; a portion of meat, even a drop of water, is a Ma.s.s. The only requisite for a Ma.s.s, is that it contains two or more parts or molecules. Therefore a Ma.s.s is a collection or combination of two or more molecules, considered as a whole.
_A "Molecule"_ is the _physical_ unit of Substance, or, in other words, the smallest part of any kind of Substance that can exist by itself and still remain that particular "kind" of substance. (But not the smallest chemical part--the latter is called an Atom, and Atoms combine to form a Molecule.) The Molecule exists as a unit, and cannot be split or separated by physical means, although it may be separated into Atoms by chemical means. In order that we may form a clear idea of the Molecule, let us take a very small Ma.s.s of Matter--a drop of water, for instance.
This drop of water is a Ma.s.s composed of a great number of molecules. It may be divided, and sub-divided, into smaller and still smaller parts.
This division may be carried on until it reaches a point where our sight and instruments are unable to make a further sub-division.
But, theoretically, the work may be carried on still further, until at last a limit is reached where we are unable to divide the water into any smaller parts, without separating its chemical const.i.tuents from each other, in which latter case there would be no water at all, its chemical const.i.tuents (or Atoms) having separated and now appearing as two atoms of Hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen, separated and apart and no longer forming a molecule of water.
Well, this smallest possible part of water (or any other form of Substance) is a Molecule. Remember the Molecule is the smallest part of that kind of Substance that can be produced by division and sub-division, without destroying the "kind" of the Substance. It is the smallest part of any kind of Substance that can exist by itself, and maintain its "kind."
In order that you may grasp the minuteness of the Molecule, we may mention that Science claims that no molecule, even the largest, is of sufficient magnitude to be seen under even the strongest microscope. It has been calculated that if a drop of water as large as a pea were magnified to the size of the Earth, the molecules would then appear no larger than the original drop. The s.p.a.ce between the molecules is believed to be considerably larger than the molecules themselves.
The figures that are necessary to use in connection with molecular Substance are likely to stagger the imagination. Besides speaking of the molecules of inorganic Substance, it may be interesting to note that a spider"s thread is so fine that a piece of it large enough to circle the earth would weigh only half a pound. And yet each thread is composed of six thousand filaments. And each of these minute filaments may be divided into tiny bits, and each bit will still be a Ma.s.s of Substance containing thousands of molecules and their const.i.tuent chemical atoms.
There are living, microscopic creatures, so small that five millions of them might be crowded into a s.p.a.ce the size of a pin head. And yet each of them have organs. And in these organs fluids circulate. Try to figure out the size of the molecules of the fluids circulating in these tiny organs, not to speak of the chemical atoms.
When you handle a coin, an infinitesimal portion of it is worn off--can you figure the size of the molecules composing that part? When a rose throws off its perfume, it emanates tiny particles of itself--can you measure or weigh the molecules composing that odor? The human mind is compelled to realize its finiteness when it considers these things--but we have only just begun to consider the smallness of Things.
_An "Atom"_ is the _chemical_ unit of Substance--that is, the smallest chemical part that can enter into combination. It has been considered indivisible--that is, incapable of further sub-division. That is, it has been so considered, until very recently, but the latest discoveries have exploded this idea, and have shown the Atom is composed of certain other Things, as we shall see a little later on. Still we may use the Atom as a very good unit of measurement, for it still represents the unit of _chemical_ Substance, just as the molecule is the unit of _physical_ Substance. In order that you may understand the difference between Molecules and Atoms--physical units, and chemical units, let us give you a few examples.
Take a molecule of water--the _physical_ unit, you remember. When it is chemically separated or a.n.a.lyzed, it is found to contain two atoms of hydrogen, and one atom of oxygen--both chemical units, remember--which when united and combined, form water, but which when separated are simple atoms of certain chemical gases. The proportion in water is always the same, two of hydrogen and one of oxygen--this is the only partnership that will form water. The molecule of table salt contains one atom of sodium and one of chlorine. The molecule of air contains five chemical gases, of which nitrogen and oxygen are the princ.i.p.al ones, the proportion being about three parts of nitrogen to one of oxygen. Some molecules are far more complex, for instance the molecule of sugar is composed of _forty-five_ chemical atoms, and sulphuric acid of seven. An atom is estimated at one-250,000,000th of an inch in diameter.
But this is not all. The old theory of the finality, and ultimateness of the Atom has been shattered by the recent discoveries of Science. The atom of Hydrogen was formerly considered to be the refinement of Substance--the Ultimate Atom--the smallest and finest Atom possible or known--the last thing that could be imagined about Substance. Some even went so far as to declare that the Atom of Hydrogen was the Ultimate Element, that is the Element out of which all other atoms were made--the mother of Atoms--the Origin of Substance. It was supposed that all other Atoms of Matter were composed of a varying number of hydrogen Atoms, which themselves were "vortex-rings in the Ether"--and that a.n.a.lysis could go no further. Science rested on its oars, and p.r.o.nounced the work of a century completed.
But alas! no sooner was this position reached, than the discovery of Radiant Matter and the formulation of the "Corpuscle Theory" brought down the whole theoretical structure, and Science was compelled to take up the hunt again, and to probe further into the inner recesses of Things for the Ultimate Thing. But, nevertheless, Atoms still exist, although their finality is no longer urged. The facts remain, although the theory has fallen.
Let us see about this latest theory--the Corpuscle or Electron Theory.
The discovery of Radiant Matter, and the investigation of the late discovery of Radium, has led to the further discovery that each Atom, instead of being a "thing-in-itself" is a little ma.s.s containing numerous other "Things" called "Corpuscles" (or "Electrons," because electrified). The theory is this, briefly: That each Atom is a minute ma.s.s of Substance containing a number of "electrified particles," which are known as Electrons, in constant motion and vibration, revolving around each other, as do the planets, suns, and moons of the Universe--in fact each chemical Atom is like unto a Universe in itself.
The simplest Atom--that which was supposed to be the "Ultimate Atom"--the Atom of Hydrogen--is supposed to contain within its tiny self no less than 1,000 minute Corpuscles, which because electrified are called "Electron," revolving in fixed and regular orbits within the containing globe of the Atom. The more complex forms of Atoms are supposed to contain a far greater number of Electrons, the authorities estimating those in an Atom of Oxygen at 10,000; those in an Atom of Gold, 100,000; and those in an Atom of Radium, 150,000. These figures are of course mere "scientific guesses" but when compared with the similar "guess" regarding the size of the Atom, they give a startling ill.u.s.tration of the size of the newly discovered Corpuscle or Electron.
Another authority, for an ill.u.s.tration, asks us to consider a great globe about 100 feet in diameter--that is, of course, 100 feet through its centre. Let the globe represent the Atom. Then imagine 1,000 minute "specks," each the size of a pin-point, composed of Substance, and each containing, as in a capsule, an atom of electricity. Each "speck" is revolving around each other in a regular orbit, in that great "100 feet through" globe, and keeping well away from one another. That will give you an idea of the relative size of the Electrons and Atoms, and the room that the former have to move about in--good many feet between each, you will notice. Lots of room, and plenty to spare. Try to figure out the size of an Electron.
Many readers of the magazines have been confused as to the relation between the Corpuscles and the Electrons (or Ions, as some have called the latter.) The matter is very simple. They are both the same. The Corpuscle is the tiny particle of Matter, which because it is electrified and has thus become the "unit of electricity," is called an "Electron." From the viewpoint of Substance we call the tiny particle a "Corpuscle"--from the viewpoint of Electricity, we call it an "Electron."
These Electrons are the tiny particles that pour forth from the pole in the Crookes" Tube, and const.i.tute what are known as "X Rays," "Cathode Rays," "Becquerel Rays," etc. They also are the particles that are thrown off and emitted by Radium, and similar substances. They exist in the Atom, as explained, but also are found "free" and independent, and in the last condition or state are thrown off in the aforesaid "Rays,"
and by Radium, etc. So far the Corpuscles are known only as charged with Electricity, and the Electron only as a tiny charge of Electricity with which the Corpuscle is charged. But Science dreams of Corpuscles of Substance other than Electrons, in which case the old Occult teachings of "light dust" and "heat dust," etc., will be verified.
The Electron contains a powerful charge of Electricity, as much in fact as an Atom, 1,000 to 150,000 times its size will carry. But Science is wondering how these highly charged particles manage to hold together in the Atom, so rigidly coherent as to appear indestructible. We think that we may get a hint at the matter a little later on in this book.
Science, or at least _some_ scientists, are wondering whether the "whirl" or vibration of the Corpuscle might not produce that which we call "Electricity," and whether, when this motion is intensified, waves of Electricity will not be emitted. The writer fully agrees with this idea, and finds that it fits closely his own theories regarding Substance and Motion. But the reader is cautioned against falling into the error of many recent popular writers on the subject, some of whom have used terms calculated to convey the idea that the Corpuscle (Electron) is Electricity _itself_, rather than tiny particles of Substance called Corpuscles, charged with the unitary charge of Electricity, and therefore called "Electrons." But for that matter, Electricity is only known to us as a.s.sociated with some form of Substance, and not as "a thing-in-itself." We shall see the reason for this as we proceed with this book. These Corpuscles are destined to play a most important part in the theories of Science from now on. They already have overturned several very carefully and laboriously erected theoretical structures--and many more will follow, among the many important ones evidently doomed to the dust-heap being the "vortex-ring"
atomic theory, and other theories built upon the Etheric origin of Matter, and other theories concerning the Ether, even to the extent of breaking down the theory of The Ether itself, which theory had almost come to be considered a Law.
We shall further consider the Corpuscles, and their qualities, characteristics, etc., in the next chapter, for they have an important bearing upon the theories advanced in the course of the study of this book.
CHAPTER VI
SUBSTANCE AND BEYOND
Science has ascribed to Substance certain characteristic qualities which it calls "Properties." It divides these properties into two cla.s.ses, _viz._: (1) Molecular Properties (sometimes called Physical Properties); and (2) Atomic Properties (sometimes called Chemical Properties).
_Molecular Properties_ are those which may be manifested by Substance without disturbing the Molecules, and consequently without affecting the "kind" of Substance.
_Atomic Properties_ are those which concern the Atoms when free from Molecular combination, and which consequently cannot be manifested without changing the "kind" of Substance.
Science, before long, is likely to add a third cla.s.s of Properties, namely, "_Corpuscular Properties_," relating to the Corpuscles or particles of Radiant Matter, but, so far, it has not had the opportunity to sufficiently observe these qualities, except in a general way.
There are certain General Properties that seem possessed by both Ma.s.s, Molecules, and Atoms--and probably by Corpuscles.
These _General Properties_ are as follows:
_Shape_: That property whereby Substance "takes up room." This property manifests in three directions, called Dimensions of s.p.a.ce, namely, Length, Breadth, and Thickness.
_Weight_: That property whereby Substance responds to Gravity. Weight is simply the measure of the attraction.
_Impenetrability_: That property whereby two bodies of Substance are prevented from occupying the same s.p.a.ce at the same time. A nail driven into a piece of wood, simply pushes aside the molecules, and occupies the s.p.a.ce between them. Substance is never actually "invaded" or its actual territory occupied by other Substance.
_Indestructibility_: That property whereby Substance is prevented from being destroyed or annihilated. Although the forms of Substance may be changed, or transformed into other forms, still, Substance _in itself_ is not destroyed, and cannot be under the existing Laws of the Universe.
_Mobility_: That property whereby Substance responds to imparted Motion.
We shall notice this property in our consideration of Motion. In addition to the Motion of the Ma.s.s, and the movements of Molecules and Atoms in response to its Attraction, there is another form of Motion constantly going on, without reference to the Attraction or impressed Motion of the Ma.s.s. The Molecules of all bodies are always in a state of rapid Motion, called Vibration. In solids this vibration is short, being restrained by the close cohesive position of the Molecules. But in Liquids, the Molecules being further separated, the vibration is far more rapid, and they move around and slide over each other with comparatively little resistance. In gases and vapors the Molecules have a splendid field for Motion, and consequently vibrate in wide fields and orbits, and dash around with the greatest velocity. The Atoms also are believed to vibrate rapidly, in accordance with their own laws of vibration. And the Corpuscles are believed to far excel the last two mentioned particles in intensity, rapidity and complexity of their vibrations, as we shall see a little later on in the book. All Substance is in constant Motion and Vibration. There is no Rest in Substance.
_Inertia_: That property whereby Substance may not move unless in response to imparted Motion; nor terminate its Motion, when it is once imparted, except in response to some other manifestation of impressed Force. Science holds that this "impressed Force" or "imparted Motion"
must come from without, but the writer holds that Force may also be "expressed" from "within," as may be seen by reference to subsequent chapters of this book.
_Attraction_: That property whereby particles or bodies of Substance (1) draw other particles or bodies toward themselves; or (2) move toward other particles or bodies; or (3) are mutually drawn together. This property manifests in four forms, generally referred to as separate and distinct from each other, but which the writer believes to be but forms of the same Attractive Power, and which he believes to be a Mental Process, at the last a.n.a.lysis (a revolutionary claim, which will be supported by argument in later chapters of the book). These three forms of Attraction are known as (1) Gravitation; (2) Cohesion; (3) Adhesion; and (4) Chemical Affinity, or Chemism. We are invited to consider them briefly, at this point, further investigation being reserved for our chapters on Motion, and Dynamic Thought.
_Gravitation_: This term is usually applied to the attraction between Ma.s.ses of Substance, such as the Sun, the Earth, and Ma.s.ses of Substance on or about the Earth"s surface. However, Newton, who discovered the facts of Gravitation, states the Law, as: "_Every particle of matter in the Universe, attracts every other particle_," _etc._