Properly speaking, we are only acquainted with one compound radical from the mineral kingdom, the nitro-muriatic, which is formed by the combination of azote with the muriatic radical. The other compound mineral acids have been much less attended to, from their producing less striking phenomena.
SECT. III.--_Observations upon the Combinations of Light and Caloric with different Substances._
I have not constructed any table of the combinations of light and caloric with the various simple and compound substances, because our conceptions of the nature of these combinations are not hitherto sufficiently accurate. We know, in general, that all bodies in nature are imbued, surrounded, and penetrated in every way with caloric, which fills up every interval left between their particles; that, in certain cases, caloric becomes fixed in bodies, so as to const.i.tute a part even of their solid substance, though it more frequently acts upon them with a repulsive force, from which, or from its acc.u.mulation in bodies to a greater or lesser degree, the transformation of solids into fluids, and of fluids to aeriform elasticity, is entirely owing. We have employed the generic name _gas_ to indicate this aeriform state of bodies produced by a sufficient acc.u.mulation of caloric; so that, when we wish to express the aeriform state of muriatic acid, carbonic acid, hydrogen, water, alkohol, &c. we do it by adding the word _gas_ to their names; thus muriatic acid gas, carbonic acid gas, hydrogen gas, aqueous gas, alkoholic gas, &c.
The combinations of light, and its mode of acting upon different bodies, is still less known. By the experiments of Mr Berthollet, it appears to have great affinity with oxygen, is susceptible of combining with it, and contributes alongst with caloric to change it into the state of gas.
Experiments upon vegetation give reason to believe that light combines with certain parts of vegetables, and that the green of their leaves, and the various colours of their flowers, is chiefly owing to this combination. This much is certain, that plants which grow in darkness are perfectly white, languid, and unhealthy, and that to make them recover vigour, and to acquire their natural colours, the direct influence of light is absolutely necessary. Somewhat similar takes place even upon animals: Mankind degenerate to a certain degree when employed in sedentary manufactures, or from living in crowded houses, or in the narrow lanes of large cities; whereas they improve in their nature and const.i.tution in most of the country labours which are carried on in the open air. Organization, sensation, spontaneous motion, and all the operations of life, only exist at the surface of the earth, and in places exposed to the influence of light. Without it nature itself would be lifeless and inanimate. By means of light, the benevolence of the Deity hath filled the surface of the earth with organization, sensation, and intelligence. The fable of Promotheus might perhaps be considered as giving a hint of this philosophical truth, which had even presented itself to the knowledge of the ancients. I have intentionally avoided any disquisitions relative to organized bodies in this work, for which reason the phenomena of respiration, sanguification, and animal heat, are not considered; but I hope, at some future time, to be able to elucidate these curious subjects.
[Trancriber"s note: The following table is presented in four sections to comply with 75 character line limitation.]
TABLE of the binary Combinations of Oxygen with simple Substances
------------+----------------+-----------------------------------------+ |Names of |First degree of oxygenation. | |the simple +--------------------+--------------------+ |substances. |New Names. |Ancient Names. | +----------------+--------------------+--------------------+ {Caloric |Oxygen gas {Vital or | { | {dephlogisticated | { | {air | { | { | {Hydrogen. |Water(A). | | { | | | {Azote {Nitrous oxyd, or }Nitrous gas or air | { {base of nitrous gas } | { | | | {Charcoal {Oxyd of charcoal, or}Unknown | Combinations{ {carbonic oxyd } | of oxygen { | | | with {Sulphur |Oxyd of sulphur |Soft sulphur | simple { | | | non-metallic{Phosphorus |Oxyd of phosphorus {Residuum from the } substances. { | {combustion of } { | {phosphorus } { | | | {Muriatic radical}Muriatic oxyd |Unknown | { | | | {Fluoric radical }Fluoric oxyd |Unknown | { | | | {Boracic radical }Boracic oxyd |Unknown | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ {Antimony |Grey oxyd of |Grey calx of | { |antimony |antimony | { | | | {Silver |Oxyd of silver |Calx of silver | { | | | {a.r.s.enic |Grey oxyd of a.r.s.enic|Grey calx of a.r.s.enic| { | | | {Bis.m.u.th |Grey oxyd of bis.m.u.th|Grey calx of bis.m.u.th| { | | | { | | | {Cobalt |Grey oxyd of cobalt |Grey calx of cobalt | { | | | {Copper |Brown oxyd of copper|Brown calx of copper{ { | | { {Tin |Grey oxyd of tin |Grey calx of tin | { | | | {Iron |Black oxyd of iron |Martial ethiops { Combinations{ | | | of oxygen {Manganese |Black oxyd of |Black calx of | with the { |manganese |manganese | simple { | | | metallic {Mercury |Black oxyd of |Ethiops mineral(B) { substances. { |mercury | { { | | | {Molybdena |Oxyd of molybdena |Calx of molybdena | { | | | {Nickel |Oxyd of nickel |Calx of nickel | { | | | {Gold |Yellow oxyd of gold |Yellow calx of gold | { | | | {Platina |Yellow oxyd of |Yellow calx of | { |platina |platina | { | | | {Lead |Grey oxyd of lead |Grey calx of lead { { | | { {Tungstein |Oxyd of Tungstein |Calx of Tungstein { { | | | {Zinc |Grey oxyd of zinc |Grey calx of zinc | ------------+----------------+--------------------+--------------------+
------------+----------------+-----------------------------------------+ |Names of |Second degree of oxygenation. | |the simple +--------------------+--------------------+ |substances. |New Names. |Ancient Names. | +----------------+--------------------+--------------------+ {Caloric | | | { | | | {Hydrogen. | | | { | | | {Azote {Nitrous acid |Smoaking nitrous | { { |acid | { | | | {Charcoal {Carbonous acid |Unknown | Combinations{ { | | of oxygen {Sulphur |Sulphurous acid |Sulphureous acid | with simple { | | | non-metallic{Phosphorus |Phosphorous acid {Volatile acid of } substances. { | {phosphorus } { | | | {Muriatic radical}Muriatous acid |Unknown | { | | | {Fluoric radical }Fluorous acid |Unknown | { | | | {Boracic radical }Boracous acid |Unknown | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ {Antimony |White oxyd of {White calx of } { |antimony {antimony } { | {diaph.o.r.etic antimony} { | | | {Silver | | | { | | | {a.r.s.enic |White oxyd of |White calx of | { |a.r.s.enic |a.r.s.enic | { | | | {Bis.m.u.th |White oxyd of |White calx of | { |bis.m.u.th |bis.m.u.th | { | | | {Cobalt | | | { | | | {Copper |Blue and green oxyds}Blue and green | { |of copper }calces of copper | { | | | {Tin |White oxyd of tin {White calx of tin, } { | {or putty of tin } { | | | {Iron |Yellow and red oxyds}Ochre and rust of | { |of iron }iron | Combinations{ | | | of oxygen {Manganese |White oxyd of |White calx of | with the { |manganese |manganese | simple { | | | metallic {Mercury |Yellow and red oxyds{Turbith mineral, } substances. { |of mercury {red precipitate, } { | {calcinated mercury, } { | {precipitate per se } { | | | {Molybdena | | | { | | | {Nickel | | | { | | | {Gold |Red oxyd of gold {Red calx of gold, } { | {purple precipitate } { | |of ca.s.sius | { | | | {Platina | | | { | | | {Lead |Yellow and red oxyds}Ma.s.sicot and minium | { |of lead } | { | | | {Tungstein | | | { | | | {Zinc |White oxyd of zinc {White calx of zinc, } { | {pompholix } ------------+----------------+--------------------+--------------------+
------------+----------------+-----------------------------------------+ |Names of |Third degree of oxygenation. | |the simple +--------------------+--------------------+ |substances. |New Names. |Ancient Names. | +----------------+--------------------+--------------------+ {Caloric | | | { | | | {Hydrogen. | | | { | | | {Azote {Nitric acid {Pale, or not } { { {smoaking nitrous } { | {acid | { | | | Combinations{Charcoal {Carbonic acid |Fixed air | of oxygen { | | | with {Sulphur |Sulphuric acid |Vitriolic acid | simple { | | | non-metallic{Phosphorus |Phosphoric acid |Phosphoric acid | substances. { | | | {Muriatic radical}Muriatic acid |Marine acid | { | | | {Fluoric radical }Fluoric acid |Unknown till lately | { | | | {Boracic radical }Boracic acid {Homberg"s sedative | { } {salt | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ {Antimony |Antimonic acid | | { | | | {Silver |Argentic acid | | { | | | {a.r.s.enic |a.r.s.eniac acid |Acid of a.r.s.enic | { | | | {Bis.m.u.th |Bis.m.u.thic acid | | { | | | {Cobalt |Cobaltic acid | | { | | | {Copper |Cupric acid | | { | | | {Tin |Stannic acid | | { | | | {Iron |Ferric acid | | Combinations{ | | | of oxygen {Manganese |Manganesic acid | | with the { | | | simple { | | | metallic {Mercury |Mercuric acid | | substances. { | | | {Molybdena |Molybdic acid |Acid of molybdena { { | | | {Nickel |Nickelic acid | | { | | | {Gold |Auric acid | | { | | | {Platina |Platinic acid | | { | | | {Lead |Plumbic acid | | { | | | {Tungstein |Tungstic acid |Acid of Tungstein { { | | | {Zinc |Zincic acid | | ------------+----------------+--------------------+--------------------+
------------+----------------+------------------------------------------+ |Names of |Fourth degree of oxygenation. | |the simple +---------------------+--------------------+ |substances. |New Names. |Ancient Names. | +----------------+---------------------+--------------------+ {Caloric | | | { | | | {Hydrogen. | | | { | | | {Azote {Oxygenated nitric |Unknown | { {acid | | { | | | {Charcoal {Oxygenated carbonic |Unknown | Combinations{ {acid | | of oxygen { | | | with {Sulphur |Oxygenated sulphuric |Unknown | simple { |acid | | non-metallic{Phosphorus |Oxygenated phosphoric|Unknown | substances. { |acid | | { | | | {Muriatic radical}Oxygenated muriatic {Dephlogisticated | { |acid |marine acid | { | | | {Fluoric radical } | | { | | | {Boracic radical } | | { } | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ {Antimony | | | { | | | {Silver | | | { | | | {a.r.s.enic |Oxygenated a.r.s.eniac |Unknown | { |acid | | { | | | {Bis.m.u.th | | | { | | | {Cobalt | | | { | | | {Copper | | | { | | | {Tin | | | { | | | {Iron | | | { | | | Combinations{ | | | of oxygen {Manganese | | | with the { | | | simple { | | | metallic {Mercury | | | substances. { | | | {Molybdena |Oxygenated molybdic |Unknown | { |acid | | {Nickel | | | { | | | {Gold | | | { | | | {Platina | | | { | | | {Lead | | | { | | | {Tungstein |Oxygenated Tungstic }Unknown | { |acid | | { | | | {Zinc | | | ------------+----------------+---------------------+--------------------+
[Note A: Only one degree of oxygenation of hydrogen is. .h.i.therto known.--A.]
[Note B: Ethiops mineral is the sulphuret of mercury; this should have been called black precipitate of mercury.--E.]
SECT. IV.--_Observations upon the Combinations of Oxygen with the simple Substances._
Oxygen forms almost a third of the ma.s.s of our atmosphere, and is consequently one of the most plentiful substances in nature. All the animals and vegetables live and grow in this immense magazine of oxygen gas, and from it we procure the greatest part of what we employ in experiments. So great is the reciprocal affinity between this element and other substances, that we cannot procure it disengaged from all combination. In the atmosphere it is united with caloric, in the state of oxygen gas, and this again is mixed with about two thirds of its weight of azotic gas.
Several conditions are requisite to enable a body to become oxygenated, or to permit oxygen to enter into combination with it. In the first place, it is necessary that the particles of the body to be oxygenated shall have less reciprocal attraction with each other than they have for the oxygen, which otherwise cannot possibly combine with them. Nature, in this case, may be a.s.sisted by art, as we have it in our power to diminish the attraction of the particles of bodies almost at will by heating them, or, in other words, by introducing caloric into the interstices between their particles; and, as the attraction of these particles for each other is diminished in the inverse ratio of their distance, it is evident that there must be a certain point of distance of particles when the affinity they possess with each other becomes less than that they have for oxygen, and at which oxygenation must necessarily take place if oxygen be present.
We can readily conceive that the degree of heat at which this phenomenon begins must be different in different bodies. Hence, on purpose to oxygenate most bodies, especially the greater part of the simple substances, it is only necessary to expose them to the influence of the air of the atmosphere in a convenient degree of temperature. With respect to lead, mercury, and tin, this needs be but little higher than the medium temperature of the earth; but it requires a more considerable degree of heat to oxygenate iron, copper, &c. by the dry way, or when this operation is not a.s.sisted by moisture. Sometimes oxygenation takes place with great rapidity, and is accompanied by great sensible heat, light, and flame; such is the combustion of phosphorus in atmospheric air, and of iron in oxygen gas. That of sulphur is less rapid; and the oxygenation of lead, tin, and most of the metals, takes place vastly slower, and consequently the disengagement of caloric, and more especially of light, is hardly sensible.
Some substances have so strong an affinity with oxygen, and combine with it in such low degrees of temperature, that we cannot procure them in their unoxygenated state; such is the muriatic acid, which has not hitherto been decomposed by art, perhaps even not by nature, and which consequently has only been found in the state of acid. It is probable that many other substances of the mineral kingdom are necessarily oxygenated in the common temperature of the atmosphere, and that being already saturated with oxygen, prevents their farther action upon that element.
There are other means of oxygenating simple substances besides exposure to air in a certain degree of temperature, such as by placing them in contact with metals combined with oxygen, and which have little affinity with that element. The red oxyd of mercury is one of the best substances for this purpose, especially with bodies which do not combine with that metal. In this oxyd the oxygen is united with very little force to the metal, and can be driven out by a degree of heat only sufficient to make gla.s.s red hot; wherefore such bodies as are capable of uniting with oxygen are readily oxygenated, by means of being mixed with red oxyd of mercury, and moderately heated. The same effect may be, to a certain degree, produced by means of the black oxyd of manganese, the red oxyd of lead, the oxyds of silver, and by most of the metallic oxyds, if we only take care to choose such as have less affinity with oxygen than the bodies they are meant to oxygenate. All the metallic reductions and revivifications belong to this cla.s.s of operations, being nothing more than oxygenations of charcoal, by means of the several metallic oxyds.
The charcoal combines with the oxygen and with caloric, and escapes in form of carbonic acid gas, while the metal remains pure and revivified, or deprived of the oxygen which before combined with it in the form of oxyd.
All combustible substances may likewise be oxygenated by means of mixing them with nitrat of potash or of soda, or with oxygenated muriat of potash, and subjecting the mixture to a certain degree of heat; the oxygen, in this case, quits the nitrat or the muriat, and combines with the combustible body. This species of oxygenation requires to be performed with extreme caution, and only with very small quant.i.ties; because, as the oxygen enters into the composition of nitrats, and more especially of oxygenated muriats, combined with almost as much caloric as is necessary for converting it into oxygen gas, this immense quant.i.ty of caloric becomes suddenly free the instant of the combination of the oxygen with the combustible body, and produces such violent explosions as are perfectly irresistible.
By the humid way we can oxygenate most combustible bodies, and convert most of the oxyds of the three kingdoms of nature into acids. For this purpose we chiefly employ the nitric acid, which has a very slight hold of oxygen, and quits it readily to a great number of bodies by the a.s.sistance of a gentle heat. The oxygenated muriatic acid may be used for several operations of this kind, but not in them all.
I give the name of _binary_ to the combinations of oxygen with the simple substances, because in these only two elements are combined. When three substances are united in one combination I call it _ternary_, and _quaternary_ when the combination consists of four substances united.
TABLE _of the combinations of Oxygen with the compound radicals._
_Names of the radicals._ _Names of the resulting acids._ _New nomenclature._ _Old nomenclature._
Nitro muriatic} Nitro muriatic acid Aqua regia.
radical }
(A) Tartaric Tartarous acid Unknown till lately.
Malic Malic acid Ditto.
Citric Citric acid Acid of lemons.
Pyro-lignous Pyro-lignous acid Empyreumatic acid of wood.
Pyro-mucous Pyro-mucous acid Empyr. acid of sugar.
Pyro-tartarous Pyro-tartarous acid Empyr. acid of tartar.
Oxalic Oxalic acid Acid of sorel.
Acetic {Acetous acid Vinegar, or acid of vinegar.
{Acetic acid Radical vinegar.
Succinic Succinic acid Volatile salt of amber.
Benzoic Benzotic acid Flowers of benzoin.
Camphoric Camphoric acid Unknown till lately.
Gallic Gallic acid {The astringent principle {of vegetables.
(B) Lactic Lactic acid Acid of sour whey.
Saccholactic Saccholactic acid Unknown till lately.
Formic Formic acid Acid of ants.
Bombic Bombic acid Unknown till lately.
Sebacic Sebacic acid Ditto.
Lithic Lithic acid Urinary calculus.
Prussic Prussic acid Colouring matter of Prussian blue.
[Note A: These radicals by a first degree of oxygenation form vegetable oxyds, as sugar, starch, mucus, &c.--A.]
[Note B: These radicals by a first degree of oxygenation form the animal oxyds, as lymph, red part of the blood, animal secretions, &c.--A.]
SECT. V.--_Observations upon the Combinations of Oxygen with the Compound Radicals._
I published a new theory of the nature and formation of acids in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1776, p. 671. and 1778, p. 535. in which I concluded, that the number of acids must be greatly larger than was till then supposed. Since that time, a new field of inquiry has been opened to chemists; and, instead of five or six acids which were then known, near thirty new acids have been discovered, by which means the number of known neutral salts have been increased in the same proportion. The nature of the acidifiable bases, or radicals of the acids, and the degrees of oxygenation they are susceptible of, still remain to be inquired into. I have already shown, that almost all the oxydable and acidifiable radicals from the mineral kingdom are simple, and that, on the contrary, there hardly exists any radical in the vegetable, and more especially in the animal kingdom, but is composed of at least two substances, hydrogen and charcoal, and that azote and phosphorus are frequently united to these, by which we have compound radicals of two, three, and four bases or simple elements united.
From these observations, it appears that the vegetable and animal oxyds and acids may differ from each other in three several ways: 1st, According to the number of simple acidifiable elements of which their radicals are composed: 2dly, According to the proportions in which these are combined together: And, 3dly, According to their different degrees of oxygenation: Which circ.u.mstances are more than sufficient to explain the great variety which nature produces in these substances. It is not at all surprising, after this, that most of the vegetable acids are convertible into each other, nothing more being requisite than to change the proportions of the hydrogen and charcoal in their composition, and to oxygenate them in a greater or lesser degree. This has been done by Mr Crell in some very ingenious experiments, which have been verified and extended by Mr Ha.s.senfratz. From these it appears, that charcoal and hydrogen, by a first oxygenation, produce tartarous acid, oxalic acid by a second degree, and acetous or acetic acid by a third, or higher oxygenation; only, that charcoal seems to exist in a rather smaller proportion in the acetous and acetic acids. The citric and malic acids differ little from the preceding acids.
Ought we then to conclude that the oils are the radicals of the vegetable and animal acids? I have already expressed my doubts upon this subject: 1st, Although the oils appear to be formed of nothing but hydrogen and charcoal, we do not know if these are in the precise proportion necessary for const.i.tuting the radicals of the acids: 2dly, Since oxygen enters into the composition of these acids equally with hydrogen and charcoal, there is no more reason for supposing them to be composed of oil rather than of water or of carbonic acid. It is true that they contain the materials necessary for all these combinations, but then these do not take place in the common temperature of the atmosphere; all the three elements remain combined in a state of equilibrium, which is readily destroyed by a temperature only a little above that of boiling water[39].
TABLE _of the Binary Combinations of Azote with the Simple Substances._
_Simple Substances._ _Results of the Combinations._ _New Nomenclature._ _Old Nomenclature._
Caloric Azotic gas Phlogisticated air, or Mephitis.
Hydrogen Ammoniac Volatile alkali.
{Nitrous oxyd Base of Nitrous gas.