Hese in cohoot with me. _He is_ in _partnership_ with me.
Did you get shet of your tobacca? Did you _get rid_, or _dispose_ of, your _tobacco_?
Who hoped you to sell it? Who _helped_ you to sell it?
PROSODY.
PROSODY treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usages of the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express: hence, in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution.
Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first teaches the true p.r.o.nunciation of words, comprising _accent_, _quant.i.ty_, _emphasis_, _pause_, and _tone_; and the second, the laws of _versification_.
_Accent_. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word _presume_, the stress of the voice must be on the letter _u_ and the second syllable, _sume_, which syllable takes the accent.
Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. For the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give a secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the princ.i.p.al accent; as, _"tes ti mo" ni"al_, _a ban"don "ing._
_Quant.i.ty_. The quant.i.ty of a syllable is that time which is occupied in p.r.o.nouncing it. It is considered as long or short.
A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which causes it to be slowly joined in p.r.o.nunciation with the following letters; as, "Fall, bale, mood, house, feature."
A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; "as, ant, bonnet, hunger."
A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in p.r.o.nouncing it; thus, "mate" and "note" should be p.r.o.nounced as slowly again as "mat" and "not."
_Emphasis_. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress.
Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution.
_Pauses_. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable s.p.a.ce of time.
_Tones_. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound which we employ in the expression of our sentiments.
Emphasis affects particular words and phrases; but tones affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse.
PUNCTUATION.
PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the different pauses which the sense and an accurate p.r.o.nunciation require.
The _Comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _Semicolon_, a pause double that of the comma; the _Colon_, double that of the semicolon; and the _Period_, double that of the colon.
Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted with the use of points; and wrote, not only without any distinction of members and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This custom continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a considerable time.
As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while ma.n.u.scripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual: all the points did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now used, became established, when learning and refinement had made considerable progress.
As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammatical construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the part of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary taste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justly merit our particular attention.
The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is established by the single fact, that _the meaning of a sentence is often totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points_. To ill.u.s.trate the correctness of this remark, numerous example might be selected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church:"
"Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up about six feet high, &c." Corrected; "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea, his wife desires the prayers of this church;" "thin visage, with a short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c."
Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for him to understand what is meant by an _adjunct_, _a simple sentence_, and a _compound sentence_.
An _adjunct_ or _imperfect phrase_ contains no a.s.sertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" "studious of praise;" "in the pursuit of commerce."--For the definition of a sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119.
When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence is compound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are adjuncts; as, "They have sacrificed their _health_ and _fortune_, at the _shrine_ of vanity, _pride_, and _extravagance_." But when the adjuncts are connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence is simple; as, "Gra.s.s of an excellent _quality_, is produced in great _abundance_ in the northern regions of our country."
COMMA.
RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, be separated by a comma; as, "Every part of matter swarms with living creatures."
_Exercises in Punctuation_.--Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness.
RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit a comma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste _of the present age_, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language;" "Too many _of the pretended friendships of youth_, are mere combinations in pleasure."
_Exercises_.--The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.
RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence, is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must be distinguished by a comma before and after it; as, "His work is, _in many respects,_ very imperfect. It is, _therefore,_ not much approved." But when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, it is better to omit the comma; as, "Flattery is _certainly_ pernicious;" "There is _surely_ a pleasure in beneficence."
_Exercises_.--Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your failings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance under costly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No a.s.sumed behavior can always hide the real character.
RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in apposition when accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished by commas; as, "My _son_, give me thy heart;" "Dear _Sir_, I write to express my grat.i.tude for your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my _friends_, for your many favors;" "_Paul_, the _apostle_, of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge;" "The _b.u.t.terfly_, _child_ of the summer, flutters in the sun."
But if _two_ nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if they form only a proper name, they should not be separated; as, _"Paul_ the _apostle_, suffered martyrdom;" "The _statesman Jefferson_, wrote the declaration of Independence."
_Exercises_.--Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study.
Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of vengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope the balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an ill.u.s.trious example of true piety.
RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple sentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "_His father dying_, he succeeded to the estate;" "_To confess the truth_, I was in fault;" "The king, _approving the plan_, put it in execution;" "He, _having finished his academical course_, has returned home, _to prosecute his professional studies_."
_Exercises_.--Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and constant spirit will a.s.suredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family a.s.sembled under the eye of one common Father.
RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing commas between its members; as, "The decay, the waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections."
Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be separated by commas; as, "The husband, wife,[11] and children,[12] suffered extremely;"
"In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;"
"David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator, lives for a n.o.ble purpose;" "Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we undertake."
[11] The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so obvious, as to render it not a little surprising, that any _writer_, possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I am bold to affirm, that it is observed by every correct reader and speaker; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is generally violated by those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others who are influenced by their pernicious example; thus, "The head, the heart and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing good." Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is understood? It would be doing no greater violence to the principles of elocution; thus, "The head the heart and the hands, should be, &c." or thus, "The head the heart, and the hands, should be employed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where the conjunction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, where the conjunction is understood? And, since this is the case, what fair objection can be made to the following method of punctuation?
"The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing good;" "She is a woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, and religious."
[12] As a considerable pause in p.r.o.nunciation is necessary between the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it; but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such instances, is properly omitted; thus, "David was a brave, wise, and _pious_ man."
Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurring in the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must be separated by commas; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim;" "Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth, needs no artificial covering;" "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed."