QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.
Before what nouns is the article omitted?--Is the article _the_ ever applied to adverbs?--Give examples.--What is the meaning of _a_ or _an_?
--When is _a_ or _an_ placed before a plural noun?--From what are _a, the_, and _that_ derived?
EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
NOTE TO RULE 1. _An_ is used before a vowel or silent _h_, and _a_ before a consonant or _u_ long, and also before the word _one_.
It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, improper to say, _a_ apple, _a_ humble suppliant, _an_ hero, _an_ university, because the word _apple_ begins with a vowel, and _h_ is not sounded in the word _humble_, for which reasons _a_ should be _an_ in the first two examples; but, as the _h_ is sounded in _hero_, and the _u_ is long in _university, a_ ought to be prefixed to these words: thus, _an_ apple, _an_ humble suppliant: _a_ hero, _a_ university. You may correct the following
EXAMPLES.
A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an horse.
NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character; as, "Gold is corrupting; _The_ sea is green; _A_ lion is bold." It would be improper to say, _The_ gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is bold.
The gra.s.s is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Gra.s.s is good for the horses, and wheat for the men. Gra.s.s looks well. Wheat is blighted.
In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular kind of _gra.s.s_ or _wheat_, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any particular crop or field of gra.s.s, or quant.i.ty of wheat; but we are speaking of gra.s.s and wheat generally, therefore the article _the_ should be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to any definite kind, quality, or number of _horses_ or _men_; but to horses and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote _whole species_, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentence should read thus, "Gra.s.s is good for horses, and wheat for men."
In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the crops of _gra.s.s_ and _wheat_ now on the ground, which, in contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as _particular_ objects; therefore we should say, "_The_ gra.s.s looks well; _The_ wheat is blighted."
NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its _general_ sense, the article should be omitted; as, "_Poetry_ is a pleasing art;" "_Oranges_ grow in New Orleans."
FALSE SYNTAX.
Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the four elements of the old philosophers.
LECTURE IV.
OF ADJECTIVES.
An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind, or to restrict its meaning; as, a _good_ man, a _bad_ man, _a free_ man, an _unfortunate_ man, _one_ man, _forty_ men.
In the phrases, a _good_ apple, a _bad_ apple, a _large_ apple, a _small_ apple, a _red_ apple, a _white_ apple, a _green_ apple, a _sweet_ apple, a _sour_ apple, a _bitter_ apple, a _round_ apple, a _hard_ apple, a _soft_ apple, a _mellow_ apple, a _fair_ apple, a _May_ apple, an _early_ apple, a _late_ apple, a _winter_ apple, a _crab_ apple, a _thorn_ apple, a _well-tasted_ apple, an _ill-looking_ apple, a _water-cored_ apple, you perceive that all those words in _italics_ are adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun apple, or it shows what _kind_ of an apple it is of which we are speaking.
The distinction between a _noun_ and an _adjective_ is very clear. A noun is the _name_ of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the _quality_ or _property_ of a thing. This is _fine cloth_. In this example, the difference between the word denoting the _thing_, and that denoting the _quality_ of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot be at a loss to know, that the word _cloth_ expresses the _name_, and _fine_, the _quality_, of the _thing_; consequently _fine_ must be an _adjective_. If I say, He is a _wise_ man, a _prudent_ man, a _wicked_ man, or an _ungrateful_ man, the words in _italics_ are adjectives, because each expresses a _quality_ of the noun man. And, if I say, He is a _tall_ man, a _short_ man, a _white_ man, a _black_ man, or a _persecuted_ man, the words, _tall, short, white, black_, and _persecuted_, are also adjectives, because they tell what _kind_ of a man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some particular property.
Some adjectives _restrict_ or _limit_ the signification of the nouns to which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called _definitives_; as, _one_ era, _seven_ ages, the _first_ man, the _whole_ ma.s.s, _no_ trouble, _those_ men, _that_ book, _all_ regions.
Other adjectives _define_ or _describe_ nouns, or do both; as, _fine_ silk, _blue_ paper, a _heavy_ shower, _pure_ water, _green_ mountains, _bland_ breezes, _gurgling_ rills, _gla.s.s_ window, _window_ gla.s.s, _beaver_ hats, _chip_ bonnets, _blackberry_ ridge, _Monroe_ garden, _Juniata_ iron, _Cincinnati_ steam-mill.
Some adjectives are _secondary_, and qualify other adjectives; as, _pale_ red lining, _dark_ blue silk, _deep sea_ green sash, _soft_ iron blooms, _red hot_ iron plate.
You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Those _men_ are _tall_; A _lion_ is _bold_; The _weather_ is _calm_; The _tree_ is three feet _thick_."
Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word that will make sense with the word _thing_ added, or with any other noun following it, is an adjective; as, a _high_ thing, a _low_ thing, a _hot_ thing, a _cold_ thing, an _unfinished_ thing, a _new-fashioned_ thing:--or, a _pleasant_ prospect, a _long-deserted_ dwelling, an _American_ soldier, a _Greek_ Testament. Are these words adjectives, _distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?_ A distant _object_ or _thing_, yonder _hill_, &c. They are. They will make sense with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an adjective by its _qualifying a noun or p.r.o.noun_.
Most words ending in _ing_ are _present participles_. These are frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after them; as, a _pleasing_ thing, a _moving_ spectacle, _mouldering_ ruins.
In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to _creatures_ and _things_, and not to their _qualities_; therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the properties of _nouns_, and _not_ of adjectives.
Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
The _positive degree_ expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution; as, _good, wise, great_.
The _comparative degree_ increases or lessens the positive in signification; as, _better, wiser, greater, less wise_.
The _superlative degree_ increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree; as, _best, wisest, greatest, least wise_.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
_More_ and _most_ form the comparative and superlative degrees by increasing the positive; and _less_ and _least_, by diminishing it.
Comparison by increasing the positive
_Pos._ _Comp._ _Sup._ great, greater, greatest.
wise, wiser, wisest.
holy, more holy most holy.
frugal, more frugal most frugal.
Comparison by diminishing the positive.
_Pos._ _Comp._ _Sup._ wise, less wise least wise.
holy, less holy, least holy.
frugal, less frugal, least frugal.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
Words used in counting, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the _cardinal_ kind; as, _one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,_ &c.
Words used in numbering, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the _ordinal_ kind; as, _first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,_ &c.
NOTE. The words _many, few_, and _several_, as they always refer to an indefinite number, may be properly called _numeral adjectives_ of the indefinite kind.
NOTES.
1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding _r_, or _er_; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding _st_, or _est_, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wise_r_, Sup.
wise_st_; rich, rich_er_, rich_est_; bold, bold_er_, bold_est_. The adverbs, _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_, when placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com. _more_ wise, Sup. _most_ wise; Pos. wise, Com. _less_ wise, Sup. _least_ wise.