It is clear that by its very nature mediate a.s.sociation can give rise to novel combinations. Contiguity itself, which is usually only repet.i.tion, becomes the source of unforeseen relations, thanks to the elimination of the middle term. Nothing, moreover, proves that there may not sometimes be several latent intermediate terms. It is possible that _A_ should call up _D_ through the medium of _b_ and _c_, which remain below the threshold of consciousness. It seems even impossible not to admit this in the hypothesis of the subconscious, where we see only the two end links of the chain, without being able to allow a break of continuity between them.
2. In his determination of the regulating causes of a.s.sociation of ideas, Ziehen designates one of these under the name of "constellation,"
which has been adopted by some writers. This may be enunciated thus: The recall of an image, or of a group of images, is in some cases the result of a sum of predominant tendencies.
An idea may become the starting point of a host of a.s.sociations. The word "Rome" can call up a hundred. Why is one called up rather than another, and at such a moment rather than at another? There are some a.s.sociations based on contiguity and on resemblance which one may foresee, but how about the rest? Here is an idea _A_; it is the center of a network; it can radiate in all directions--_B, C, D, E, F, etc._ Why does it call up now _B_, later _F_?
It is because every image is comparable to a force, which may pa.s.s from the latent to the active condition, and in this process may be reinforced or checked by other images. There are simultaneous and inhibitory tendencies. _B_ is in a state of tension and _C_ is not; or it may be that _D_ exerts an arresting influence on _C_. Consequently _C_ cannot prevail. But an hour later conditions have changed and victory rests with _C_. This phenomenon rests on a physiological basis: the existence of several currents diffusing themselves through the brain and the possibility of receiving simultaneous excitations.[24]
A few examples will make plainer this phenomenon of reinforcement, in consequence of which an a.s.sociation prevails. Wahle reports that the Gothic _Hotel de Ville_, near his house, had never suggested to him the idea of the Doges" Palace at Venice, in spite of certain architectural likenesses, until a certain day when this idea broke upon him with much clearness. He then recalled that two hours before he had observed a lady wearing a beautiful brooch in the form of a gondola. Sully rightly remarks that it is much easier to recall the words of a foreign language when we return from the country where it is spoken than when we have lived a long time in our own, because the tendency toward recollection is reinforced by the recent experience of the words heard, spoken, read, and a whole array of latent dispositions that work in the same direction.
In my opinion we would find the finest examples of "constellation,"
regarded as a creative element, in studying the formation and development of myths. Everywhere and always man has had for material scarcely anything save natural phenomena--the sky, land, water, stars, storms, wind, seasons, life, death, etc. On each of these themes he builds thousands of explanatory stories, which vary from the grandly imposing to the laughably childish. Every myth is the work of a human group which has worked according to the tendencies of its special genius under the influence of various stages of intellectual culture. No process is richer in resources, of freer turn, or more apt to give what every inventor promises--the novel and unexpected.
To sum up: The initial element, external or internal, excites a.s.sociations that one cannot always foresee, because of the numerous orientations possible; an a.n.a.logous case to that which occurs in the realm of the will when there are present reasons for and against, acting and not acting, one direction or another, now or later--when the final resolution cannot be predicted, and often depends on imperceptible causes.
In conclusion, I antic.i.p.ate a possible question: "Does the unconscious factor differ in nature from the two others (intellectual and emotional)?" The answer depends on the hypothesis that one holds as to the nature of the unconscious itself. According to one view it would be especially physiological, consequently different; according to another, the difference can exist only _in the processes_: unconscious elaboration is reducible to intellectual or emotional processes the preparatory work of which is slighted, and which enters consciousness ready made. Consequently, the unconscious factor would be a special form of the other two rather than a distinct element in invention.
FOOTNOTES:
[18] Several of them will be found in Appendix A at the end of this work.
[19] On this subject see Appendix B.
[20] Dr. Chabaneix, _Le subconscient sur les artistes, les savants, et les ecrivains_, Paris, 1897, p. 87.
[21] The recent case, studied with so much ability by M. Flournoy in his book, "_Des Indes a la planete Mars_" (1900), is an example of the subliminal creative imagination, and of the work it is capable of doing by itself.
[22] We shall return to this point in another part of this work. See Part II, chapter iv.
[23] Thus Howe (_American Journal of Psychology_, vi, 239 ff.), has published some investigations in the negative. One series of 557 experiments gave him eight apparently mediate a.s.sociations; after examination, he reduced them to a single one, which seemed to him doubtful. Another series of 961 experiments gives 72 cases, for which he offers an explanation other than mediate a.s.sociation. On the other hand, Aschaffenburg admits them to the extent of four per cent.; the a.s.sociation-time is longer than for average a.s.sociations (_Psychologische Arbeiten_, I and II). Consult especially Scripture, _The New Psychology_, chapter xiii, with experiments in support of his conclusion.
[24] Ziehen, _Leitfaden der physiologischen Psychologie_, 4th edition, 1898, pp. 164, 174. Also, Sully, _Human Mind_, I, 343.
CHAPTER IV
THE ORGANIC CONDITIONS OF THE IMAGINATION
Whatever opinion we may hold concerning the nature of the unconscious, since that form of activity is related more than any other to the physiological conditions of the mental life, the present time is suitable for an exposition of the hypotheses that it is permissible to express concerning the organic bases of the imagination. What we may regard as positive, or even as probable, is very little.
I
First, the anatomical conditions. Is there a "seat" of the imagination?
Such is the form of the question asked for the last twenty years. In that period of extreme and closely bounded localization men strained themselves to bind down every psychic manifestation to a strictly determined point of the brain. Today the problem presents itself no longer in this simple way. As at present we incline toward scattered localization, functional rather than properly anatomical, and as we often understand by "center" the synergic action of several centers differently grouped according to the individual case, our question becomes equivalent to: "Are there certain portions of the brain having an exclusive or preponderating part in the working of the creative imagination?" Even in this form the question is hardly acceptable.
Indeed, the imagination is not a primary and relatively simple function like that of visual, auditory and other sensations. We have seen that it is a state of tertiary formation and very complex. There is required, then, (1) that the elements const.i.tuting imagination be determined in a rigorous manner, but the foregoing a.n.a.lysis makes no pretense of being definitive; (2) that each of these const.i.tutive elements may be strictly related to its anatomic conditions. It is evident that we are far from possessing the secret of such a mechanism.
An attempt has been made to put the question in a more precise and limited form by studying the brains of men distinguished in different lines. But this method, in avoiding the difficulty, answers our question indirectly only. Most often great inventors possess qualities besides imagination indispensable for success (Napoleon, James Watt, etc.). How draw a dividing line so as to a.s.sign to the imagination only its rightful share? In addition, the anatomical determination is beset with difficulties.
A method flourishing very greatly about the middle of the nineteenth century consisted of weighing carefully a large number of brains and drawing various conclusions as to intellectual superiority or inferiority from a comparison of the weights. We find on this point numerous doc.u.ments in the special works published during the period mentioned. But this method of weights has given rise to so many surprises and difficulties in the way of explanation that it has been quite necessary to give it up, since we see in it only another element of the problem.
Nowadays we attribute the greatest importance to the morphology of the brain, to its histological structure, the marked development of certain regions, the determination not only of centers but of connections and a.s.sociations between centers. On this last point contemporary anatomists have given themselves up to eager researches, and, although the cerebral architecture is not conceived by all in the same way, it is proper for psychology to note that all with their "centers" or "a.s.sociational system" try to translate into their own language the complex conditions of mental life. Since we must choose from among these various anatomical views let us accept that of Flechsig, one of the most renowned and one having also the advantage of putting directly the problem of the organic conditions of the imagination.
We know that Flechsig relies on the embryological method--that is, on the development--in the order of time, of nerves and centers. For him there exist on the one hand sensitive regions (sensory-motor), occupying about a third of the cortical surface; on the other hand, a.s.sociation-centers, occupying the remaining part.
So far as the sensory centers are concerned, development occurs in the following order: Organic sensations (middle of cerebral cortex), smell (base of the brain and part of the frontal lobes), sight (occipital lobe), hearing (first temporal). Whence it results that in a definite part of the brain the body comes to proper consciousness of its impulses, wants, appet.i.tes, pains, movements, etc., and that this part develops first--"knowledge of the body precedes that of the outside world."
In what concerns the a.s.sociational centers, Flechsig supposes three regions: The great posterior center (parieto-occipito-temporal); another, much smaller, anterior or frontal; and a middle center, the smallest of all (the Island of Reil). Comparative anatomy proves that the a.s.sociational centers are more important than those of sensation.
Among the lower mammals they develop as we go up the scale: "That which makes the psychic man may be said to be the centers of a.s.sociation that he possesses." In the new-born child the sensitive centers are isolated, and, in the absence of connections between them, the unity of the self cannot be manifested; there is a plurality of consciousness.
This much admitted, let us return to our special question, which Flechsig asks in these words: "On what does genius rest? Is it based on a special structure in the brain, or rather on special irritability?
that is, according to our present notions, on chemical factors? We may hold the first opinion with all possible force. Genius is always united to a special structure, to a particular organization of the brain." All parts of this organ do not have the same value. It has been long admitted that the frontal part may serve as a measure of intellectual capacity; but we must allow, contrariwise, that there are other regions, "princ.i.p.ally a center located under the protuberance at the top of the head, which is very much developed in all men of genius whose brains have been studied down to our day. In Beethoven, and probably also in Bach, the enormous development of this part of the brain is striking. In great scientists like Gauss the centers of the posterior region of the brain and those of the frontal region are strongly developed. The scientific genius thus shows proportions of brain-structure other than the artistic genius."[25] There would then be, according to our author, a preponderance of the frontal and parietal regions--the former obtain especially among artists; the latter among scientists. Already, twenty years before Flechsig, Rudinger had noted the extraordinary development of the parietal convolutions in eminent men after a study of eighteen brains. All the convolutions and fissures were so developed, said he, that the parieto-occipital region had an altogether peculiar character.
By way of summary we must bear in mind that, as regards anatomical conditions, even when depending on the best of sources, we can at present give only fragmentary, incomplete, hypothetical views.
Let us now go on to the physiology.
II
We might have rightly asked whether the physiological states existing along with the working of the creative imagination are the cause, effect, or merely the accompaniment of this activity. Probably all the three conditions are met with. First, concomitance is an accomplished fact, and we may consider it as an organic manifestation parallel to that of the mind. Again, the employment of artificial means to excite and maintain the effervescence of the imagination a.s.signs a causal or antecedent position to the physiologic conditions. Lastly, the psychic activity may be initial and productive of changes in the organism, or, if these already exist, may augment and prolong them.
The most instructive instances are those indicated by very clear manifestations and profound modifications of the bodily condition. Such are the moments of inspiration or simply those of warmth from work which arise in the form of sudden impulses.
The general fact of most importance consists of changes in the blood circulation. Increase of intellectual activity means an increase of work in the cortical cells, dependent on a congested, sometimes a temporarily anaemic state. Hyperaemia seems rather the rule, but we also know that slight anaemia increases cortical excitability. "Weak, contracted pulse; pale, chilly skin; overheated head; brilliant, sunken, roving eyes,"
such is the cla.s.sic, frequently quoted description of the physiological state during creative labor. There are numerous inventors who, of their own accord, have noted these changes--irregular pulse, in the case of Lagrange; congestion of the head, in Beethoven, who made use of cold douches to relieve it, etc. This elevation of the vital tone, this nervous tension, translates itself also into motor form through movements a.n.a.logous to reflexes, without special end, mechanically repeated and always the same in the same man--e.g., movement of the feet, hands, fingers; whittling the table or the arms of a chair (as in the case of Napoleon when he was elaborating a plan of campaign), etc.
It is a safety-valve for the excessive flow of nervous impulse, and it is admitted that this method of expenditure is not useless for preserving the understanding in all its clearness. In a word, increase of the cerebral circulation is the formula covering the majority of observations on this subject.
Does experimentation, strictly so called, teach us anything on this point? Numerous and well-known physiological researches, especially those of Mosso, show that all intellectual, and, most of all, emotional, work, produces cerebral congestion; that the brain-volume increases, and the volume of the peripheral organs diminishes. But that tells us nothing particularly about the imagination, which is but a special case under the rule. Latterly, indeed, it has been proposed to study inventors by an objective method through the examination of their several circulatory, respiratory, digestive apparatus; their general and special sensibility; the modes of their memory and forms of a.s.sociation, their intellectual processes, etc. But up to this time no conclusion has been drawn from these individual descriptions that would allow any generalization. Besides, has an experiment, in the strict sense of the word, ever been made at the "psychological moment"? I know of none. Would it be possible? Let us admit that by some happy chance the experimenter, using all his means of investigation, can have the subject under his hand at the exact moment of inspiration--of the sudden, fertile, brief creative impulse--would not the experiment itself be a disturbing cause, so that the result would be _ipso facto_ vitiated, or at least unconvincing?
There still remains a ma.s.s of facts deserving summary notice--the oddities of inventors. Were we to collect only those that may be regarded as authentic we could make a thick volume. Despite their anecdotal character these evidences do not seem to be unworthy of some regard.
It is impossible to enter here upon an enumeration that would be endless. After having collected for my own information a large number of these strange peculiarities, it seems to me that they are reducible to two categories:
(1) Those inexplicable freaks dependent on the individual const.i.tution, and more often probably also on experiences in life the memory of which has been lost. Schiller, for example, kept rotten apples in his work desk.
(2) The others, more numerous, are easy to explain. They are physiological means consciously or unconsciously chosen to aid creative work; they are auxiliary helpers of the imagination.
The most frequent method consists of artificially increasing the flow of blood to the brain. Rousseau would think bare-headed in full sunshine; Bossuet would work in a cold room with his head wrapped in furs; others would immerse their feet in ice-cold water (Gretry, Schiller). Very numerous are those who think "horizontally"--that is, lying stretched out and often flattened under their blankets (Milton, Descartes, Leibniz, Rossini, etc.)
Some require motor excitation; they work only when walking,[26] or else prepare for work by physical exercise (Mozart). For variety"s sake, let us note those who must have the noise of the streets, crowds, talk, festivities, in order to invent. For others there must be external pomp and a personal part in the scene (Machiavelli, Buffon). Guido Reni would paint only when dressed in magnificent style, his pupils crowded about him and attending to his wants in respectful silence.
On the opposite side are those requiring retirement, silence, contemplation, even shadowy darkness, like Lamennais. In this cla.s.s we find especially scientists and thinkers--Tycho-Brahe, who for twenty-one years scarcely left his observatory; Leibniz, who could remain for three days almost motionless in an armchair.
But most methods are too artificial or too strong not to become quickly noxious. Every one knows what they are--abuse of wine, alcoholic liquors, narcotics, tobacco, coffee, etc., prolonged periods of wakefulness, less for increasing the time for work than to cause a state of hyperesthesia and a morbid sensibility (Goncourt).