Our discussions shall have reference, not to those general psychological characteristics which all races have in common, but only to those which may seem to stamp the j.a.panese people as peculiar. We wish to understand the distinguishing features of the j.a.panese mind.
We wish to know whether they are due to brain structure, to inherent race nature, or whether they are simply the result of education, of social heredity. This is our ever-recurring question.
First, in regard to j.a.panese brain development. Travelers have often been impressed with the unusual size of the j.a.panese head. It has sometimes been thought, however, that the size is more apparent than real, and the appearance has been attributed to the relatively short limbs of the people and to the unusual proportion of round heads which one sees everywhere. It may also be due to the shape of the head. But, after all has been said, it remains true that the j.a.panese head, as related to his body, is unexpectedly large.
Prof. Marsh of Yale University is reported to have said that, on the basis of brain size, the j.a.panese is the race best fitted to survive in the struggle for existence, or at least in the struggle for pre-eminence.
Statements have been widely circulated to the effect that not only relatively to the body, but even absolutely, the j.a.panese possess larger brains than the European, but craniological statistics do not verify the a.s.sertion. The matter has been somewhat discussed in j.a.panese magazines of late, to which, through the a.s.sistance of a j.a.panese friend, I am indebted for the following figures. They are given in j.a.panese measurements, but are, on this account, however, none the less satisfactory for comparative purposes.
According to Dr. Davis, the average European male brain weighs 36,498 momme, and the Australian, 22,413, while the j.a.panese, according to Dr. Taguchi weighs 36,205. Taking the extremes, the largest English male brain weighs 38,100 momme and the smallest 35,377, whereas the corresponding figures for j.a.pan are 43,919 and 30,304, respectively, showing an astonishing range between extremes. According to Dr. E.
Baelz of the Imperial University of Tokyo, the lower cla.s.ses of j.a.pan have a larger skull circ.u.mference than either the middle or upper cla.s.ses (1.8414, 1.7905, and 1.8051 feet, respectively), and the Ainu (1.8579) exceed the j.a.panese. From these facts it might almost appear that brain size and civilizational development are in inverse ratio.
Were the j.a.panese brain larger, then, than that of the European, it might plausibly be argued that they are therefore inferior in brain power. This would be in accord with certain of De Quatref.a.ges"s investigations. He has shown that negroes born in America have smaller brains, but are intellectually superior to their African brothers.
"With them, therefore, intelligence increases, while the cranial capacity diminishes."[Y]
Those who trace racial and civilizational nature to brain development cannot gain much consolation from a comparative statistical study of race brains. De Quatref.a.ges"s conclusion is repeatedly forced home: "We must confess that there can be no real relation between the dimension of the cranial capacity and social development."[Z] "The development of the intellectual faculties of man is, to a great extent, independent of the capacity of the cranium and the volume of the brain."[AA]
We may conclude at once, then, that j.a.panese intellectual peculiarities are in no way due to the size of their brains, but depend rather on their social evolution. Yet it will not be amiss to study in detail the various mental peculiarities of the race, real and supposed, and to note their relation to the social order.
In becoming acquainted with the j.a.panese and Chinese peoples, an Occidental is much impressed with their powers of memory, and this especially in connection with the written language, the far-famed "Chinese Character," or ideograph. My Chinese dictionary contains over 50,000 different characters. The task of learning them is appalling.
How the j.a.panese or Chinese do it is to us a constant wonder. We a.s.sume at once their possession of astonishing memories. We argue that, for hundreds of years, each generation has been developing powers of memory through efforts to conquer this c.u.mbersome contrivance for writing, and that, as a consequence for the nations using this system, there is now prodigious ability to remember.
It is my impression, however, that we greatly overrate these powers.
In the first place, few j.a.panese claim any acquaintance with the entire 50,000 characters; only the educated make any pretense of knowing more than a few hundred, and a vast majority even of learned men do not know more than 10,000 characters. Some j.a.panese newspapers have undertaken to limit themselves in the use of the ideograph. It is said that between four and five thousand characters suffice for all the ordinary purposes of communication. These are, without doubt, fairly well known to the educated cla.s.ses. But for the ma.s.ses, there is need that the p.r.o.nunciation be placed beside each printed character, before it can be read. Furthermore, we must remember that a j.a.panese youth gives the best years of his life to the bare memorizing of these symbols.[AB]
Were European or American youth to devote to the study of Chinese the same number of hours each day for the same number of years, I doubt if there would be any conspicuous difference in the results. We should not forget also that some Occidentals manifest astonishing facility in memorizing Chinese characters.
In this connection is the important fact that the social order serves to sift out individuals of marked mnemonic powers and bring them into prominence, while those who are relatively deficient are relegated to the background. The educated cla.s.s is necessarily composed of those who have good powers of memory. All others fail and are rejected. We see and admire those who succeed; of those who fail we know nothing and we even forget that there are such.
In response to my questions j.a.panese friends have uniformly a.s.sured me that they are not accustomed to think of the j.a.panese as possessed of better memories than the people of the West. They appear surprised that the question should be raised, and are specially surprised at our high estimate of j.a.panese ability in this direction.
If, however, we inquire about their powers of memory in connection with daily duties and the ordinary acquisition of knowledge and its retention, my own experience of twelve years, chiefly with the middle and lower cla.s.ses of society, has left the impression that, while some learn easily and remember well, a large number are exceedingly slow.
On the whole, I am inclined to believe that, although the j.a.panese may be said to have good memories, yet it can hardly be maintained that they conspicuously exceed Occidentals in this respect.
In comparing the Occidental with the Oriental, it is to be remembered that there is not among Occidental nations that attention to bare memorizing which is so conspicuous among the less civilized nations.
The astonishing feats performed by the transmitters of ancient poems and religious teachings seem to us incredible. Professor Max Muller says that the voluminous Vedas have been handed down for centuries, unchanged, simply from mouth to mouth by the priesthood. Every progressive race, until it has attained a high development of the art of writing, has manifested similar power of memory. Such power is not, however, inherent; that is to say, it is not due to the innate peculiarity of brain structure, but rather to the nature of the social order which demands such expenditure of time and strength for the maintenance of its own higher life. Through the art of writing Occidental peoples have found a cheaper way of retaining their history and of preserving the products of their poets and religious teachers.
Even for the transactions of daily life we have resorted to the constant use of pen and notebook and typewriter, by these devices saving time and strength for other things. As a result, our memories are developed in directions different from those of semi-civilized or primitive man. The differences of memory characterizing different races, then, are for the most part due to differences in the social order and to the nature of the civilization, rather than to the intrinsic and inherited structure of the brain itself.
Since memory is the foundation of all mental operations, we have given to it the first place in the present discussion. And that the j.a.panese have a fair degree of memory argues well for the prospect of high attainment in other directions. With this in mind, we naturally ask whether they show any unusual proficiency or deficiency in the acquisition of foreign languages? In view of her protracted separation from the languages of other peoples, should we not expect marked deficiency in this respect? On the contrary, however, we find that tens of thousands of j.a.panese students have acquired a fairly good reading knowledge of English, French, and German. Those few who have had good and sufficient teaching, or who have been abroad and lived in Occidental lands, have in addition secured ready conversational use of the various languages. Indeed, some have contended that since the j.a.panese learn foreign languages more easily than foreigners learn j.a.panese, they have greater linguistic powers than the foreigner. It should be borne in mind, however, that in such a comparison, not only are the time required and the proficiency; attained to be considered, but also the inherent difficulty of the language studied and the linguistic helps provided the student.
I have come gradually to the conclusion that the j.a.panese are neither particularly gifted nor particularly deficient in powers of language acquisition. They rank with Occidental peoples in this respect.
To my mind language affords one of the best possible proofs of the general contention of this volume that the characteristics which distinguish the races are social rather than biological. The reason why the languages of the different races differ is not because the brain-types of the races are different, but only because of the isolated social evolution which the races have experienced. Had it been possible for j.a.pan to maintain throughout the ages perfect and continuous social intercourse with the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxon race, while still maintaining biological isolation, _i.e._, perfect freedom from intermarriage, there is no reason to think that two distinct languages so different as English and j.a.panese would have arisen. The fact that j.a.panese children can accurately acquire English, and that English or American children can accurately acquire j.a.panese, proves conclusively that diversities of language do not rest on brain differences and brain heredity, but exclusively on social differences and social heredity.
If this is true, then the argument can easily be extended to all the features that differentiate the civilizations of different races; for the language of any race is, in a sense, the epitome of the civilization of that race. All its ideas, customs, theologies, philosophies, sciences, mythologies; all its characteristic thoughts, conceptions, ideals; all its distinguishing social features, are represented in its language. Indeed, they enter into it as determining factors, and by means of it are transmitted from age to age. This argument is capable of much extension and ill.u.s.tration.
The charge that the j.a.panese are a nation of imitators has been repeated so often as to become trite, and the words are usually spoken with disdain. Yet, if the truth were fully told, it would be found that, from many points of view, this quality gives reason rather for congratulation. Surely that nation which can best discriminate and imitate has advantage over nations that are so fixed in their self-sufficiency as to be able neither to see that which is advantageous nor to imitate it. In referring to the imitative powers of the j.a.panese, then, I do not speak in terms of reproach, but rather in those of commendation. "Monkeyism" is not the sort of imitation that has transformed primitive j.a.pan into the j.a.pan of the early or later feudal ages, nor into the j.a.pan of the twentieth century. Bare imitation, without thought, has been relatively slight in j.a.pan. If it has been known at times, those times have been of short duration.
In his introduction to "The Cla.s.sic Poetry of the j.a.panese" Professor Chamberlain has so stated the case for the imitative quality of the people that I quote the following:
"The current impression that the j.a.panese are a nation of imitators is in the main correct. As they copy us to-day, so did they copy the Chinese and Koreans a millennium and a half ago. Religion, philosophy, laws, administration, written characters, all arts but the very simplest, all science, or at least what then went by that name, everything was imported from the neighboring continent; so much so that of all that we are accustomed to term "Old j.a.pan"
scarce one trait in a hundred is really and properly j.a.panese. Not only are their silk and lacquer not theirs by right of invention, nor their painting (albeit so often praised by European critics for its originality), nor their porcelain, nor their music, but even the larger part of their language consists of misp.r.o.nounced Chinese; and from the Chinese they have drawn new names for already existing places, and new t.i.tles for their ancient G.o.ds."
While the above cannot be disputed in its direct statements, yet I can but feel that it makes, on the whole, a false impression. Were these same tests applied to any European people, what would be the result?
Of what European nation may it be said that its art, or method of writing, or architecture, or science, or language even, is "its own by right of invention"? And when we stop to examine the details of the ancient j.a.panese civilization which is supposed to have been so, slavishly copied from China and India, we shall find that, though the beginnings were indeed imitated, there were also later developments of purely j.a.panese creation. In some instances the changes were vital.
In examining the practical arts, while we acknowledge that the beginnings of nearly all came from Korea or China, we must also acknowledge that in many important respects. j.a.pan has developed along her own lines. The art of sword-making, for instance, was undoubtedly imported; but who does not know of the superior quality and beauty of j.a.panese swords, the Damascus blades of the East? So distinct is this j.a.panese production that it cannot be mistaken for that of any other nation. It has received the impress of the j.a.panese social order. Its very shape is due to the habit of carrying the sheath in the "obi" or belt.
If we study the home of the laborer, or the instruments in common use, we shall find proof that much more than imitation has been involved.
Were the j.a.panese mere imitators, how could we explain their architecture, so different from that of China and Korea? How explain the multiplied original ways in which bamboo and straw are used?
For a still closer view of the matter, let us consider the imported ethical and religious codes of the country. In China the emphasis of Confucianism is laid on the duty of filial piety. In j.a.pan the primary emphasis is on loyalty. This single change transformed the entire system and made the so-called Confucianism of j.a.pan distinct from that of China. In Buddhism, imported from India, we find greater changes than Occidental nations have imposed on their religion imported from Palestine. Indeed, so distinct has j.a.panese Buddhism become that it is sometimes difficult to trace its connections in China and India. And the Buddhistic sects that have sprung up in j.a.pan are more radically diverse and antagonistic to each other and to primitive Buddhism than the denominations of Christianity are to each other and to primitive Christianity.
In ill.u.s.tration is the most popular of all the Buddhist sects to-day, Shinshu. This has sometimes been called by foreigners "Reformed"
Buddhism; and so similar are many of its doctrines to those of Christianity that some have supposed them to have been derived from it, but without the slightest evidence. All its main doctrines and practices were clearly formulated by its founder, Shinrah, six hundred years ago. The regular doctrines of Buddhism that salvation comes only through self-effort and self-victory are rejected, and salvation through the merits of another is taught. "Ta-riki," "another"s power,"
not "Ji-riki," "self-power," is with them the orthodox doctrine.
Priests may marry and eat meat, practices utterly abhorrent to the older and more primitive Buddhism. The sacred books are printed in the vernacular, in marked contrast to the customs of the other sects.
Women, too, are given a very different place in the social and religious scale and are allowed hopes of attaining salvation that are denied by all the older sects. "Penance, fasting, prescribed diet, pilgrimages, isolation from society, whether as hermits or in the cloister, and generally amulets and charms, are all tabooed by this sect. Monasteries imposing life vows are unknown within its pale.
Family life takes the place of monkish seclusion. Devout prayer, purity, earnestness of life, and trust in Buddha himself as the only worker of perfect righteousness, are insisted on. Morality is taught as more important than orthodoxy."[AC] It is amazing how far the Shin sect has broken away from regular Buddhistic doctrine and practice.
Who can say that no originality was required to develop such a system, so opposed at vital points to the prevalent Buddhism of the day?
Another sect of purely j.a.panese origin deserving notice is the "Hokke"
or "Nicheren." Its founder, known by the name of Nichiren, was a man of extraordinary independence and religious fervor. Wholly by his original questions and doubts as to the prevailing doctrines and customs of the then dominant sects, he was led to make independent examination into the history and meaning of Buddhistic literature and to arrive at conclusions quite different from those of his contemporaries. Of the truth and importance of his views he was so persuaded that he braved not only fierce denunciations, but prolonged opposition and persecution. He was rejected and cast out by his own people and sect; he was twice banished by the ruling military powers.
But he persevered to the end, finally winning thousands of converts to his views. The virulence of the attacks made upon him was due to the virulence with which he attacked what seemed to him the errors and corruption of the prevailing sects. Surely his was no case of servile imitation. His early followers had also to endure opposition and severe persecution.
Glancing at the philosophical ideas brought from China, we find here too a suggestion of the same tendency toward originality. It is true that Dr. Geo. Wm. Knox, in his valuable monograph on "A j.a.panese Philosopher," makes the statement that, "In acceptance and rejection alike no native originality emerges, nothing beyond a vigorous power of adoption and a.s.similation. No improvements of the new philosophy were even attempted. Wherein it was defective and indistinct, defective and indistinct it remained. The system was not thought out to its end and independently adopted. Polemics, ontology, ethics, theology, marvels, heroes--all were enthusiastically adopted on faith.
It is to be added that the new system was superior to the old, and so much of discrimination was shown."[AD] And somewhat earlier he likewise a.s.serts that "There is not an original and valuable commentary by a j.a.panese writer. They have been content to brood over the imported works and to accept unquestioningly politics, ethics, and metaphysics." After some examination of these native philosophers, I feel that, although not without some truth, these a.s.sertions cannot be strictly maintained. It is doubtless true that no powerful thinker and writer has appeared in j.a.pan that may be compared to the two great philosophers of China, Shushi and Oyomei. The works and the system of the former dominated j.a.pan, for the simple reason that governmental authority forbade the public teaching or advocacy of the other.
Nevertheless, not a few j.a.panese thinkers rejected the teachings and philosophy of Shushi, regardless of consequences. Notable among those rejecters was Kaibara Yekken, whose book "The Great Doubt" was not published until after his death. In it he rejects in emphatic terms the philosophical and metaphysical ideas of Shushi. An article[AE] by Dr. Tetsujiro Inouye, Professor of Philosophy in the Imperial University in Tokyo, on the "Development of Philosophical Ideas in j.a.pan," concludes with these words:
"From this short sketch the reader can clearly see that philosophical considerations began in our country with the study of Shushi and Oyomei. But many of our thinkers did not long remain faithful to that tradition; they soon formed for themselves new conceptions of life and of the world, which, as a rule, are not only more practical, but also more advanced than those of the Chinese."
An important reason for our Western thought, that the j.a.panese have had no independence in philosophy, is our ignorance of the larger part of j.a.panese and Chinese literature. Oriental speculation was moving in a direction so diverse from that of the West that we are impressed more with the general similarity that prevails throughout it than with the evidences of individual differences. Greater knowledge would reveal these differences. In our generalized knowledge, we see the uniformity so strongly that we fail to discover the originality.
As a traveler from the West, on reaching some Eastern land, finds it difficult at first to distinguish between the faces of different individuals, his mind being focused on the likeness pervading them all, so the Occidental student of Oriental thought is impressed with the remarkable similarity that pervades the entire Oriental civilization, modes of thought, and philosophy, finding it difficult to discover the differences which distinguish the various Oriental races. In like manner, a beginner in the study of j.a.panese philosophy hardly gives the j.a.panese credit for the modifications of Chinese philosophy which they have originated.
In this connection it is well to remember that, more than any Westerner can realize, the j.a.panese people have been dependent on governmental initiative from time immemorial. They have never had any thought but that of implicit obedience, and this characteristic of the social order has produced its necessary consequences in the present characteristics of the people. Individual initiative and independence have been frowned upon, if not always forcibly repressed, and thus the habit of imitation has been stimulated. The people have been deliberately trained to imitation by their social system. The foreigner is amazed at the sudden transformations that have swept the nation. When the early contact with China opened the eyes of the ruling cla.s.ses to the fact that China had a system of government that was in many respects better than their own, it was an easy thing to adopt it and make it the basis for their own government. This const.i.tuted the epoch-making period in j.a.panese history known as the Taikwa Reform. It occurred in the seventh century, and consisted of a centralizing policy; under which, probably for the first time in j.a.panese history, the country was really unified. Critics ascribe it to an imitation of the Chinese system. Imitation it doubtless was; but its significant feature was its imposition by the few rulers on the people; hence its wide prevalence and general acceptance.
Similarly, in our own times, the Occidentalized order now dominant in j.a.pan was adopted, not by the people, but by the rulers, and imposed by them on the people; these had no idea of resisting the new order, but accepted it loyally as the decision of their Emperor, and this spirit of unquestioning obedience to the powers that be is, I am persuaded, one of the causes of the prevalent opinion respecting j.a.panese imitativeness as well as of the fact itself.
The reputation for imitativeness, together with the quality itself, is due in no small degree, therefore, to the long-continued dominance of the feudal order of society. In a land where the dependence of the inferior on the superior is absolute, the wife on the husband, the children on the parents, the followers on their lord, the will of the superior being ever supreme, individual initiative must be rare, and the quality of imitation must be powerfully stimulated.
XVII
ORIGINALITY--INVENTIVENESS