1659. According to the beautiful theory of Ampere, the transverse force of a current may be represented by its attraction for a similar current and its repulsion of a contrary current. May not then the equivalent transverse force of static electricity be represented by that lateral tension or repulsion which the lines of inductive action appear to possess (1304.)?
Then again, when current or discharge occurs between two bodies, previously under inductrical relations to each other, the lines of inductive force will weaken and fade away, and, as their lateral repulsive tension diminishes, will contract and ultimately disappear in the line of discharge. May not this be an effect identical with the attractions of similar currents? i.e. may not the pa.s.sage of static electricity into current electricity, and that of the lateral tension of the lines of inductive force into the lateral attraction of lines of similar discharge, have the same relation and dependences, and run parallel to each other?
1660. The phenomena of induction amongst currents which I had the good fortune to discover some years ago (6. &c. 1048.) may perchance here form a connecting link in the series of effects. When a current is first formed, it tends to produce a current in the contrary direction in all the matter around it; and if that matter have conducting properties and be fitly circ.u.mstanced, such a current is produced. On the contrary, when the original current is stopped, one in the same direction tends to form all around it, and, in conducting matter properly arranged, will be excited.
1661. Now though we perceive the effects only in that portion of matter which, being in the neighbourhood, has conducting properties, yet hypothetically it is probable, that the nonconducting matter has also its relations to, and is affected by, the disturbing cause, though we have not yet discovered them. Again and again the relation of conductors and non-conductors has been shown to be one not of opposition in kind, but only of degree (1334, 1603.); and, therefore, for this, as well as for other reasons, it is probable, that what will affect a conductor will affect an insulator also; producing perhaps what may deserve the term of the electrotonic state (60. 242. 1114.).
1662. It is the feeling of the necessity of some lateral connexion between the lines of electric force (1114.); of some link in the chain of effects as yet unrecognised, that urges me to the expression of these speculations.
The same feeling has led me to make many experiments on the introduction of insulating dielectrics having different inductive capacities (1270. 1277.) between magnetic poles and wires carrying currents, so as to pa.s.s across the lines of magnetic force. I have employed such bodies both at rest and in motion, without, as yet, being able to detect any influence produced by them; but I do by no means consider the experiments as sufficiently delicate, and intend, very shortly, to render them more decisive[A].
[A] See onwards 1711.--1726.--_Dec. 1838._
1663. I think the hypothetical question may at present be put thus: can such considerations as those already generally expressed (1658.) account for the transverse effects of electrical currents? are two such currents in relation to each other merely by the inductive condition of the particles of matter between them, or are they in relation by some higher quality and condition (1654.), which, acting at a distance and not by the intermediate particles, has, like the force of gravity, no relation to them?
1664. If the latter be the case, then, when electricity is acting upon and in matter, its direct and its transverse action are essentially different in their nature; for the former, if I am correct, will depend upon the contiguous particles, and the latter will not. As I have said before, this may be so, and I incline to that view at present; but I am desirous of suggesting considerations why it may not, that the question may be thoroughly sifted.
1665. The transverse power has a character of polarity impressed upon it.
In the simplest forms it appears as attraction or repulsion, according as the currents are in the same or different directions: in the current and the magnet it takes up the condition of tangential forces; and in magnets and their particles produces poles. Since the experiments have been made which have persuaded me that the polar forces of electricity, as in induction and electrolytic action (1298. 1343.), show effects at a distance only by means of the polarized contiguous and intervening particles, I have been led to expect that _all polar forces_ act in the same general manner; and the other kinds of phenomena which one can bring to bear upon the subject seem fitted to strengthen that expectation. Thus in crystallizations the effect is transmitted from particle to particle; and in this manner, in acetic acid or freezing water a crystal a few inches or even a couple of feet in length will form in less than a second, but progressively and by a transmission of power from particle to particle.
And, as far as I remember, no case of polar action, or partaking of polar action, except the one under discussion, can be found which does not act by contiguous particles[A]. It is apparently of the nature of polar forces that such should be the case, for the one force either finds or developed the contrary force near to it, and has, therefore, no occasion to seek for it at a distance.
[A] I mean by contiguous particles those which are next to each other, not that there is _no_ s.p.a.ce between them. See (1616.).
1666. But leaving these hypothetical notions respecting the nature of the lateral action out of sight, and returning to the direct effects, I think that the phenomena examined and reasoning employed in this and the two preceding papers tend to confirm the view first taken (1464.), namely, that ordinary inductive action and the effects dependent upon it are due to an action of the contiguous particles of the dielectric interposed between the charged surfaces or parts which const.i.tute, as it were, the terminations of the effect. The great point of distinction and power (if it have any) in the theory is, the making the dielectric of essential and specific importance, instead of leaving it as it were a mere accidental circ.u.mstance or the simple representative of s.p.a.ce, having no more influence over the phenomena than the s.p.a.ce occupied by it. I have still certain other results and views respecting the nature of the electrical forces and excitation, which are connected with the present theory; and, unless upon further consideration they sink in my estimation, I shall very shortly put them into form as another series of these electrical researches.
_Royal Inst.i.tution.
February 14th, 1838._
FOURTEENTH SERIES.
-- 20. _Nature of the electric force or forces._ -- 21. _Relation of the electric and magnetic forces._ -- 22. _Note on electrical excitation._
Received June 21, 1838.--Read June 21, 1838.
-- 20. _Nature of the electric force or forces._
1667. The theory of induction set forth and ill.u.s.trated in the three preceding series of experimental researches does not a.s.sume anything new as to the nature of the electric force or forces, but only as to their distribution. The effects may depend upon the a.s.sociation of one electric fluid with the particles of matter, as in the theory of Franklin, Epinus, Cavendish, and Mossotti; or they may depend upon the a.s.sociation of two electric fluids, as in the theory of Dufay and Poisson; or they may not depend upon anything which can properly be called the electric fluid, but on vibrations or other affections of the matter in which they appear. The theory is unaffected by such differences in the mode of viewing the nature of the forces; and though it professes to perform the important office of stating _how_ the powers are arranged (at least in inductive phenomena), it does not, as far as I can yet perceive, supply a single experiment which can be considered as a distinguishing test of the truth of any one of these various views,
1668. But, to ascertain how the forces are arranged, to trace them in their various relations to the particles of matter, to determine their general laws, and also the specific differences which occur under these laws, is as important as, if not more so than, to know whether the forces reside in a fluid or not; and with the hope of a.s.sisting in this research, I shall offer some further developments, theoretical and experimental, of the conditions under which I suppose the particles of matter are placed when exhibiting inductive phenomena.
1669. The theory a.s.sumes that all the _particles_, whether of insulating or conducting matter, are as wholes conductors.
1670. That not being polar in their normal state, they can become so by the influence of neighbouring charged particles, the polar state being developed at the instant, exactly as in an insulated conducting _ma.s.s_ consisting of many particles.
1671. That the particles when polarized are in a forced state, and tend to return to their normal or natural condition.
1672. That being as wholes conductors, they can readily be charged, either _bodily_ or _polarly_.
1673. That particles which being contiguous[A] are also in the line of inductive action can communicate or transfer their polar forces one to another _more_ or _less_ readily.
[A] See note to 1164.--_Dec. 1838._
1674. That those doing so less readily require the polar forces to be raised to a higher degree before this transference or communication takes place.
1675. That the _ready_ communication of forces between contiguous particles const.i.tutes _conduction_, and the _difficult_ communication _insulation_; conductors and insulators being bodies whose particles naturally possess the property of communicating their respective forces easily or with difficulty; having these differences just as they have differences of any other natural property.
1676. That ordinary induction is the effect resulting from the action of matter charged with excited or free electricity upon insulating matter, tending to produce in it an equal amount of the contrary state.
1677. That it can do this only by polarizing the particles contiguous to it, which perform the same office to the next, and these again to those beyond; and that thus the action is propagated from the excited body to the next conducting ma.s.s, and there renders the contrary force evident in consequence of the effect of communication which supervenes in the conducting ma.s.s upon the polarization of the particles of that body (1675.).
1678. That therefore induction can only take place through or across insulators; that induction is insulation, it being the necessary consequence of the state of the particles and the mode in which the influence of electrical forces is transferred or transmitted through or across such insulating media.
1679. The particles of an insulating dielectric whilst under induction may be compared to a series of small magnetic needles, or more correctly still to a series of small insulated conductors. If the s.p.a.ce round a charged globe were filled with a mixture of an insulating dielectric, as oil of turpentine or air, and small globular conductors, as shot, the latter being at a little distance from each other so as to be insulated, then these would in their condition and action exactly resemble what I consider to be the condition and action of the particles of the insulating dielectric itself (1337.). If the globe were charged, these little conductors would all be polar; if the globe were discharged, they would all return to their normal state, to be polarized again upon the recharging of the globe. The state developed by induction through such particles on a ma.s.s of conducting mutter at a distance would be of the contrary kind, and exactly equal in amount to the force in the inductric globe. There would be a lateral diffusion of force (1224. 1297.), because each polarized sphere would be in an active or tense relation to all those contiguous to it, just as one magnet can affect two or more magnetic needles near it, and these again a still greater number beyond them. Hence would result the production of curved lines of inductive force if the inducteous body in such a mixed dielectric were an uninsulated metallic ball (1219. &c.) or other properly shaped ma.s.s. Such curved lines are the consequences of the two electric forces arranged as I have a.s.sumed them to be: and, that the inductive force can be directed in such curved lines is the strongest proof of the presence of the two powers and the polar condition of the dielectric particles.
1680. I think it is evident, that in the case stated, action at a distance can only result through an action of the contiguous conducting particles.
There is no reason why the inductive body should polarize or affect _distant_ conductors and leave those _near_ it, namely the particles of the dielectric, unaffected: and everything in the form of fact and experiment with conducting ma.s.ses or particles of a sensible size contradicts such a supposition.
1681. A striking character of the electric power is that it is limited and exclusive, and that the two forces being always present are exactly equal in amount. The forces are related in one of two ways, either as in the natural normal condition of an uncharged insulated conductor; or as in the charged state, the latter being a case of induction.
1682. Cases of induction are easily arranged so that the two forces being limited in their direction shall present no phenomena or indications external to the apparatus employed, Thus, if a Leyden jar, having its external coating a little higher than the internal, be charged and then its charging ball and rod removed, such jar will present no electrical appearances so long as its outside is uninsulated. The two forces which may be said to be in the coatings, or in the particles of the dielectric contiguous to them, are entirely engaged to each other by induction through the gla.s.s; and a carrier ball (1181.) applied either to the inside or outside of the jar will show no signs of electricity. But if the jar be insulated, and the charging ball and rod, in an uncharged state and suspended by an insulating thread of white silk, be restored to their place, then the part projecting above the jar will give electrical indications and charge the carrier, and at the same time the _outside_ coating of the jar will be found in the opposite state and inductric towards external surrounding objects.
1683. These are simple consequences of the theory. Whilst the charge of the inner coating could induce only through the gla.s.s towards the outer coating, and the latter contained no more of the contrary force than was equivalent to it, no induction external to the jar could be perceived; but when the inner coating was extended by the rod and ball so that it could induce through the air towards external objects, then the tension of the polarized gla.s.s molecules would, by their tendency to return to the normal state, fall a little, and a portion of the charge pa.s.sing to the surface of this new part of the inner conductor, would produce inductive action through the air towards distant objects, whilst at the same time a part of the force in the outer coating previously directed inwards would now be at liberty, and indeed be constrained to induct outwards through the air, producing in that outer coating what is sometimes called, though I think very improperly, free charge. If a small Leyden jar be converted into that form of apparatus usually known by the name of the electric well, it will ill.u.s.trate this action very completely.
1684. The terms _free charge_ and _dissimulated electricity_ convey therefore erroneous notions if they are meant to imply any difference as to the mode or kind of action. The charge upon an insulated conductor in the middle of a room is in the same relation to the walls of that room as the charge upon the inner coating of a Leyden jar is to the outer coating of the same jar. The one is not more _free_ or more _dissimulated_ than the other; and when sometimes we make electricity appear where it was not evident before, as upon the outside of a charged jar, when, after insulating it, we touch the inner coating, it is only because we divert more or less of the inductive force from one direction into another; for not the slightest change is in such circ.u.mstances impressed upon the character or action of the force.
1685. Having given this general theoretical view, I will now notice particular points relating to the nature of the a.s.sumed electric polarity of the insulating dielectric particles.
1686. The polar state may be considered in common induction as a forced state, the particles tending to return to their normal condition. It may probably be raised to a very high degree by approximation of the inductric and inducteous bodies or by other circ.u.mstances; and the phenomena of electrolyzation (861. 1652. 1796.) seem to imply that the quant.i.ty of power which can thus be acc.u.mulated on a single particle is enormous. Hereafter we may be able to compare corpuscular forces, as those of gravity, cohesion, electricity, and chemical affinity, and in some way or other from their effects deduce their relative equivalents; at present we are not able to do so, but there seems no reason to doubt that their electrical, which are at the same time their chemical forces (891. 918.), will be by far the most energetic.
1687. I do not consider the powers when developed by the polarization as limited to two distinct points or spots on the surface of each particle to be considered as the poles of an axis, but as resident on large portions of that surface, as they are upon the surface of a conductor of sensible size when it is thrown into a polar state. But it is very probable, notwithstanding, that the particles of different bodies may present specific differences in this respect, the powers not being equally diffused though equal in quant.i.ty; other circ.u.mstances also, as form and quality, giving to each a peculiar polar relation. It is perhaps to the existence of some such differences as these that we may attribute the specific actions of the different dielectrics in relation to discharge(1394. 1508.). Thus with respect to oxygen and nitrogen singular contrasts were presented when spark and brush discharge were made to take place in these gases, as may be seen by reference to the Table in paragraph 1518 of the Thirteenth Series; for with nitrogen, when the small, negative or the large positive ball was rendered inductric, the effects corresponded with those which in oxygen were produced when the small positive or the large negative ball was rendered inductric.
1688. In such solid bodies as gla.s.s, lac, sulphur, &c., the particles appear to be able to become polarized in all directions, for a ma.s.s when experimented upon so as to ascertain its inductive capacity in three or more directions (1690.), gives no indication of a difference. Now as the particles are fixed in the ma.s.s, and as the direction of the induction through them must change with its change relative to the ma.s.s, the constant effect indicates that they can be polarized electrically in any direction.
This accords with the view already taken of each particle as a whole being a conductor (1669.), and, as an experimental fact, helps to confirm that view.
1689. But though particles may thus be polarized in _any_ direction under the influence of powers which are probably of extreme energy (1686.), it does not follow that each particle may not tend to polarize to a greater degree, or with more facility, in one direction than another; or that different kinds may not have specific differences in this respect, as they have differences of conducting and other powers (1296. 1326. 1395.). I sought with great anxiety for a relation of this nature; and selecting crystalline bodies as those in which all the particles are symmetrically placed, and therefore best fitted to indicate any result which might depend upon variation of the direction of the forces to the direction of the particles in which they were developed, experimented very carefully with them. I was the more strongly stimulated to this inquiry by the beautiful electrical condition of the crystalline bodies tourmaline and boracite, and hoped also to discover a relation between electric polarity and that of crystallization, or even of cohesion itself (1316.). My experiments have not established any connexion of the kind sought for. But as I think it of equal importance to show either that there is or is not such a relation, I shall briefly describe the results.
1690. The form of experiment was as follows. A bra.s.s ball 0.73 of an inch in diameter, fixed at the end of a horizontal bra.s.s rod, and that at the end of a bra.s.s cylinder, was by means of the latter connected with a large Leyden battery (291.) by perfect metallic communications, the object being to keep that ball, by its connexion with the charged battery in an electrified state, very nearly uniform, for half an hour at a time. This was the inductric ball. The inducteous ball was the carrier of the torsion electrometer (1229. 1314.); and the dielectric between them was a cube cut from a crystal, so that two of its faces should be perpendicular to the optical axis, whilst the other four were parallel to it. A small projecting piece of sh.e.l.l-lac was fixed on the inductric ball at that part opposite to the attachment of the bra.s.s rod, for the purpose of preventing actual contact between the ball and the crystal cube. A coat of sh.e.l.l-lac was also attached to that side of the carrier ball which was to be towards the cube, being also that side which was furthest from the repelled ball in the electrometer when placed in its position in that instrument. The cube was covered with a thin coat of sh.e.l.l-lac dissolved in alcohol, to prevent the deposition of damp upon its surface from the air. It was supported upon a small table of sh.e.l.l-lac fixed on the top of a stem of the same substance, the latter being of sufficient strength to sustain the cube, and yet flexible enough from its length to act as a spring, and allow the cube to bear, when in its place, against the sh.e.l.l-lac on the inductric ball.
[Ill.u.s.tration:]
1691. Thus it was easy to bring the inducteous ball always to the same distance from the inductric bull, and to uninsulate and insulate it again in its place; and then, after measuring the force in the electrometer (1181.), to return it to its place opposite to the inductric ball for a second observation. Or it was easy by revolving the stand which supported the cube to bring four of its faces in succession towards the inductric ball, and so observe the force when the lines of inductive action (1304.) coincided with, or were transverse to, the direction of the optical axis of the crystal. Generally from twenty to twenty-eight observations were made in succession upon the four vertical faces of a cube, and then an average expression of the inductive force was obtained, and compared with similar averages obtained at other times, every precaution being taken to secure accurate results.
1692. The first cube used was of _rock crystal_; it was 0.7 of an inch in the side. It presented a remarkable and constant difference, the average of not less than 197 observations, giving 100 for the specific inductive capacity in the direction coinciding with the optical axis of the cube, whilst 93.59 and 93.31 were the expressions for the two transverse directions.