=Form and place in which food is sold.=--Food in the package costs more than in bulk, and each fancy label adds a fraction to the cost.
Plate-gla.s.s windows and ribbon decorations in a shop and the large expense of rent on a fashionable street are all paid for by the consumer.
=Relative cost of home and shop products.=--When prepared food of any kind is purchased, one pays for raw material plus the cost of fuel and the labor involved in the cooking and the cleaning of apparatus and kitchen.
For example, canned soup sold by one of the best manufacturers brings a good price because so much time and labor are used in a careful inspection of all material, and in keeping up a high standard of cleanliness.
Remember, too, that whenever cooked food appears on the table, these two items, fuel and labor, are in reality added to the cost of the raw material. We may not pay cash always for the labor, but it must be accounted for in time and energy. The woman who says, "My time doesn"t count," has a poor opinion of herself. Whether or not it is better to buy cooked food or to prepare food at home is discussed on page 292.
=Other elements in food prices.=--So far we have considered those causes of food prices that are what may be called "natural," always to be taken into account, and only partly under our control. There are others that have to do with big business methods and interests and that have great influence at some one period in a nation"s life, and less at others. They are more or less under our control if we have the wisdom and courage to act. A discussion of these causes is part of the study of economics proper, and we can only stop by the way to think of them for a moment.
Transportation must always increase cost, as we have learned, but bad methods, involving the handling of food by many people, increase it unnecessarily. Our present methods of marketing food are clumsy, and not economical, especially in large cities. The subject is being seriously studied with a view to improvement, possibly by the establishment of public markets.
At present we have a bewildering state of things, but the housekeeper who sincerely desires, can learn to buy and prepare the less costly foods in an appetizing way, and leave nothing for the garbage pail but the parts that are actually not eatable.
=Comparative costs.=--It would be useless to print here a list of actual prices, since they vary in different localities, and are constantly changing. This list can be made by yourselves in your notebooks for your own home town, and for the current year. The table on page 318 is a guide, however, for in spite of fluctuations in prices there are certain foods that are permanently more economical than others; for example, grain products than meats, for reasons already explained. As a rule, the rising cost of food has been so general as not to change greatly the relative economy of the different types of food as compared with each other.
=Cost and nutritive value.=--The discussion of cost has dealt so far with the cost of _food materials_ as they are found in the market. What we are really seeking to learn is the amount of _nutritive_ material to be obtained for a given sum of money, and in order to do this, we must think of our purchases in terms of the _foodstuffs_ and their values. The accompanying table from a government bulletin[17] gives an estimate of cost from this point of view in terms of protein and fuel value. Notice that wheat bread is a cheap food, standing first in the amount of building material and energy.
AMOUNTS OF PROTEIN AND ENERGY OBTAINED FOR 10 CENTS EXPENDED FOR BREAD AND OTHER FOODS AT CERTAIN a.s.sUMED PRICES PER POUND
__________________________________________________________________ | | | 10 CENTS" WORTH | | | WILL CONTAIN | | 10 CENTS |___________________ FOOD MATERIALS | PRICE | WILL BUY | PRO- | A FUEL | | | TEIN | VALUE OF ________________|___________________|__________|_________|_________ | | Ounces | Ounces | Calories Wheat bread | 5 cents per lb. | 32.0 | 2.9 | 2400 Cheese | 22 cents per lb. | 7.3 | 1.9 | 886 Beef, average | 20 cents per lb. | 8.0 | 1.2 | 467 Porterhouse steak 25 cents per lb | 6.4 | 1.3 | 444 Dried beef | 25 cents per lb. | 6.4 | .1 | 315 Eggs | 24 cents per lb. | 10.0 | 1.3 | 198 Milk | 9 cents per qt. | 38.3 | 1.2 | 736 Potatoes | 60 cents per bu. | 160.0 | -- | 2950 Apples 1-1/2 cents per lb. | 106.7 | -- | 1270 ________________|___________________|__________|_________|_________
The price quoted for eggs is low, and even less could be obtained for ten cents at prevailing prices in 1913-1914. This kind of estimate is a help in making menus and dietaries. (See Chapter XVIII.) Another method of estimating economy for this purpose is by calculating the cost of 100-Calorie portions of various food materials. A table giving such a comparison will be found in the next chapter.
PURCHASING FOOD
In addition to the general principles of buying discussed in Chapter XXI there are some details to be studied in purchasing food.
=Personal attention in buying food.=--It is absolutely necessary to visit the market and the grocery where food is purchased. The purchaser would not fail to visit a shop before deciding to patronize it regularly, but frequent calls are necessary if buying is to be economical. Select the grocery, market, and bakery with a view to their cleanliness. Notice if the doors and windows are screened, and if proper effort is made to catch flies that may have entered. Refuse to buy food that is exposed upon the sidewalk, and if it is within doors, see that it is protected from dust and flies. The best markets now have tiled walls and floors, which help to insure cleanliness. The difference in odor is marked between a market that is properly cleaned daily, and one where the proprietor uses uncleanly methods. Meat and vegetables, in particular, should be personally selected whenever this is possible. The butcher must understand that the purchaser is familiar with the different cuts of meat and that honest service is demanded in regard to the quality, tr.i.m.m.i.n.g, and weight of the meat. One does not want to be too suspicious, but it is well for the butcher to know that the purchaser has a set of standard scales at home by which to prove the accuracy of his weighing. It is also important to inspect fruit and vegetables for quality and cost.
=Quant.i.ties in which to purchase food.=--The amount that one purchases of a certain food depends on its keeping qualities, and upon the storage s.p.a.ce available at home. A general rule may be stated: Buy perishable foods in small quant.i.ties; non-perishable foods in large. The reason for buying in larger quant.i.ty is that the cost is somewhat less, although sometimes it seems but little less. Some one has remarked that no one is a good buyer who does not consider a quarter of a cent. In a modern house or apartment where there is not room for a barrel of flour or sugar, then the quant.i.ty must be gauged by the s.p.a.ce. The same is true of canned goods as of flour and sugar. Buying by the dozen saves a little on each can if you have shelf room for piling the cans.
Foods may be cla.s.sed in this connection as perishable, semi-perishable, and non-perishable. This depends somewhat for any one housekeeper upon the size of her refrigerator, and upon an available place where food may be cool, even if not so cold as in the refrigerator. Those foods cla.s.sed here as perishable are those which readily "spoil," that is, those that are affected by mold and bacteria on account of the moisture that they contain, and also those that lose flavor and freshness quickly. Those most easily affected should be kept the coldest; those in the semi-perishable group do not deteriorate so rapidly, although a low temperature is desirable with all of these. Under the non-perishable foods are cla.s.sed those that are not subject to bacteria or mold in ordinary circ.u.mstances.
These should be kept dry, however, and never in a heated place. In a sense, no food material is non-perishable. Insects sometimes develop in the cereal products, for instance, and the material is thus rendered unfit for food. The food adjuncts do not spoil except as they lose flavor if kept too long.
_Perishable._--Milk, cream, uncooked meat, uncooked fish, sh.e.l.lfish, berries, fruits with delicate skins, lettuce, and vegetables that wilt easily.
_Semi-perishable._--b.u.t.ter, eggs, cooked meat and fish, root vegetables, cooked vegetables, left overs in general, skin fruits like apples, bananas, oranges, and lemons, dried fruits, scalded milk and cream, smoked and salted fish and meats, open mola.s.ses and sirup.
_Non-perishable._--Flour, meals and cereals, sugar, salt, and other condiments and flavorings, jellies, preserves and canned goods, coffee, tea, cocoa, and chocolate.
=Suggestions for buying.=--Milk and cream must be delivered daily. The average amount used by the family is the regular order. Fresh meat should be delivered on the day wanted unless the refrigerator is large with a s.p.a.ce for hanging meat. Even then, it should not be kept more than twenty-four hours. Meat should not be placed directly on the ice. Fresh berries and delicate vegetables should be delivered on the day wanted.
b.u.t.ter and eggs may be purchased once a week; other semi-perishables in quant.i.ties depending on storage s.p.a.ce. It is economical to buy a box of lemons, and the root vegetables in large quant.i.ties. Flour and sugar are purchased by the bag or barrel; lump sugar, in boxes. Breakfast cereals are best bought in packages, and it is wise not to buy a large number at one time. It is better to purchase oftener and have fresher material.
Coffee may be bought in pound cans, but it is economy to purchase it in five or ten pound quant.i.ties, unground. Tea comes in closely sealed packages, in 1/4, 1/2, and 1 lb. and larger. Cocoa is bought in 1/2 lb.
cans, but it is economy to buy in large cans if it is frequently used.
Macaroni is bought by the package, and the number at one time must depend on how much it is used in the menu. Rice, tapioca, and sago may be bought in bulk and kept in tin or gla.s.s jars. Salt by the bag or box. Spices, ground, in tight boxes; whole in bulk, to be kept in tightly closed cans.
Mola.s.ses comes by the gallon or in cans. If in bulk, it is usually acid; in the can it is not. Vinegar comes by the gallon, or in bottles. Canned and preserved goods, singly, by the dozen, or case. Bakery products, when bought at all, should be purchased daily, or every other day. Do not buy so much that stale bread acc.u.mulates.
=Weights, measures, and packages.=--The buyer is at a disadvantage here in regard to quant.i.ties, for the baskets in which fruits and vegetables are sold do not always conform to the standard dry measures, and dishonest dealers evade the law in regard to the use of standard scales. Even if they have the standard, they resort to tricks that give the customer short weights. Here the Bureau of Weights and Measures, with its Commissioner and corps of inspectors, comes to the aid of the purchaser. Effective work has been done in our cities in enforcing the laws, and this work continues.
Selling fruit, vegetables, and even eggs by weight would simplify matters in many ways, and this is the custom in some parts of the United States with vegetables and fruit, although it is not yet a common practice; with eggs it seems more convenient to sell by the dozen, but grading according to size is a step toward standardization.
The alluring packages in which so many articles are offered are quite uneven as to the quant.i.ties they contain. They certainly do away with some handling of food, and they keep out dust. Unfortunately, an attractive package does not guarantee a clean factory or clean handling in the packing. Dried figs, for example, in pretty baskets are sometimes packed in uncleanly places. Moreover, small packages are poor economy, since the box adds to the cost of the food material, and sometimes there seems even more package than food. If the family consumes many biscuits or "crackers," it costs considerably more to buy them in packages. Yet, these are convenient, and should be cleanly, and are justified for these reasons, provided the housekeeper does not buy many small packages.
The quant.i.ties in canned goods are variable and sometimes below measure when purchased from a second-rate dealer. In September, 1914, the net weight amendment to the National Food Law will go into effect, after which, in general, foods sold in packages must be labeled to show net weight or measure or numerical count.
As already suggested, you should own standard scales for testing the purchases made by weight, even baker"s bread. Buy fruit and vegetables by the quart, peck, and bushel, rather than by the basket of uncertain measure. Examine baskets containing small fruits to see if they have false bottoms. If you discover small measure, report at once to the dealer, and to whatever authority has charge of such matters in your town.
=Quality.=--Modern methods of manufacture, transportation, and storage make it difficult to determine the history and quality of food we purchase in the markets. Yet the consumer has a natural right to know if the food offered for sale is the best of its kind; fresh eggs, clean milk, meat from healthy animals, untainted and free from harmful preservatives, sound vegetables and fruit, manufactured and preserved foodstuffs unspoiled by the manufacturing processes, free from harmful preservatives, and of good flavor. Many people must be in danger of forgetting the flavor of a fresh-laid egg. The familiar signs in many small shops, "Fresh eggs,"
"Strictly fresh eggs," "Fancy eggs," are amusing, but they bespeak an unnatural state of things.
As our business methods have created conditions beyond the control of the individual consumer it follows that we must take concerted action, and make and enforce whatever laws are necessary. This is done partly through the Federal government, and partly through state laws and munic.i.p.al ordinances. Thus, while we may not know the actual conditions in which food is produced, we may through legislation seek to insure that the food we buy shall be
(1) what it purports to be in kind and amount,
(2) free from deterioration or unwholesome conditions,
(3) possessed of full nutritive value.
The Federal Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906, commonly known as "The Pure Food Law," and on which subsequent legislation by most of the states has been largely based, defines the main types of adulteration and misbranding, but, except in the case of confectionery and of habit-forming drugs, does not name the specific substances which are to be prohibited or restricted in use, nor does the law itself contain standards of composition for foods.
According to this law _a food is deemed adulterated_:
(1) If any substance has been mixed or packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength.
(2) If any substance has been subst.i.tuted, wholly or in part.
(3) If any valuable const.i.tuent has been wholly or in part abstracted.
(4) If it be mixed, colored, coated, powdered, or stained in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed.
(5) If it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient which may render such article injurious to health.
(6) If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal unfit for food, or if it be the product of a diseased animal, or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter.
_And a food is deemed to be misbranded:_
(1) If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article.
(2) If it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the purchaser, or purport to be a foreign product when not so, or if the contents shall have been subst.i.tuted in whole or in part, or if it fail to bear a statement on the label of the quant.i.ty or proportion of any narcotic or habit-forming drug which it contains.
(3) If it bear an incorrect statement of weight or measure.
(4) If the package containing it or its label shall bear any statement, design, or device which is false or misleading in any particular.
For a fuller discussion of the basis of pure food legislation and the essential features of the United States laws see Sherman"s "Food Products," from which a part of the summary here given is drawn.
The modern cold storage plant is of immense service in keeping food from the season of abundance to that of scarcity, but it may prove worse than useless if improperly managed. State and federal laws must control the management, and government inspection must be thorough. Cold storage would be a benefit to all under proper conditions of management, and the prices of many foods would be evenly adjusted by the maintenance of a steady supply. Many states now have laws regulating cold storage plants and there is every reason to hope that the abuses which have sometimes existed will be eliminated and the usefulness of cold storage extended.
We may feel that the progress of the pure food movement has been most satisfactory, even though much more remains to be done. The states generally have either enacted new food laws, or revised their laws following the national law. Under the national law over 2000 prosecutions have already (1913) been decided in favor of the government.