11. For an account of the January-February ma.s.sacres in Kabul, see Michael Griffin, Reaping the Whirlwind, Reaping the Whirlwind, p. 30. The estimate of ten thousand civilian deaths from fighting during 1993 is from Ahmed Rashid, p. 30. The estimate of ten thousand civilian deaths from fighting during 1993 is from Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil, and Fundamentalism, Militant Islam, Oil, and Fundamentalism, p. 226. See also Larry P. Goodson, p. 226. See also Larry P. Goodson, Afghanistan"s Endless Afghanistan"s Endless War, War, pp. 74-75. pp. 74-75.
12. That Prince Turki worked with Hamid Gul during this period is from Charles Cogan, former CIA Near East Division chief in the Directorate of Operations, writing in "Partners in Time,"World Policy Journal, p. 78, as well as from interviews with Saudi, Pakistani, and U.S. officials. The portrait of Javed Nasir"s Islamist outlook is from interviews with multiple Pakistani officials, including his successor as ISI director-general, Lt. Gen. Javed Ashraf Qazi (Ret.), May 19, 2002, Rawalpindi, Pakistan (SC). p. 78, as well as from interviews with Saudi, Pakistani, and U.S. officials. The portrait of Javed Nasir"s Islamist outlook is from interviews with multiple Pakistani officials, including his successor as ISI director-general, Lt. Gen. Javed Ashraf Qazi (Ret.), May 19, 2002, Rawalpindi, Pakistan (SC).
13. To: SECSTATE Washington, D.C., February 5, 1993, "Implications of Continued Stalemate . ..," author"s files.
14. That the White House did no policy review on Afghanistan during the first Clinton term is from multiple interviews with former Clinton White House and State Department officials. Christopher"s outlook and Raphel"s background are from interviews with former Clinton administration officials. David Halberstam"s War in a Time of Peace War in a Time of Peace provides a deep account of foreign policy formation during the first Clinton term and the heavy priorities accorded to Clinton"s domestic policy agenda. provides a deep account of foreign policy formation during the first Clinton term and the heavy priorities accorded to Clinton"s domestic policy agenda.
15. What Raphel argued is from interviews with former Clinton administration officials. Quotations are from the author"s interviews with officials who declined to be further identified.
16. "A place where" is from the interview with Woolsey, February 20, 2002, Washington, D.C. (SC).
17. Interview with Thomas Twetten, March 18, 2002, Washington, D.C. (SC).
18. "Just really background," ibid.
19. Cogan, "Partners in Time," World Policy World Policy Journal, Journal, p. 82. p. 82.
CHAPTER 15: "A NEW GENERATION".
1. Cofer Black"s biography and Khartoum station profile in 1993 are from interviews with U.S. officials. Black testified before the Joint Inquiry Committee on September 26, 2002. He referred to his service in Sudan in pa.s.sing during his testimony. Later he became the State Department"s counterterrorism coordinator.
2. That the Operating Directive was limited to intelligence collection and did not authorize covert action to disrupt bin Laden is from the author"s interviews with U.S. officials. In prepared testimony for the Joint Inquiry Committee on October 17, 2002, CIA director George Tenet said, "As early as 1993, our units watching [bin Laden] began to propose action to reduce his organization"s capabilities." The statement suggests that case officers may have proposed specific covert action plans from Khartoum to their superiors at Langley that were turned down.
3. Interviews with U.S. officials.
4. The Saudi-Egyptian intelligence report is from "Usama bin Ladin: Islamic Extremist Financier," publicly released CIA a.s.sessment, 1996.
5. Evidence later showed that bin Laden had by now paid for terrorist and paramilitary operations in Yemen, against a hotel occupied by American soldiers, and in Somalia, against U.S. Army Rangers fighting Somali Islamic militias. The CIA and FBI did not learn of bin Laden"s involvement in these plots until several years later. A key breakthrough came in the summer of 1996 when a close bin Laden aide, Jamal al-Fadl, who had been embezzling funds, defected from al Qaeda and walked into the U.S. emba.s.sy in Eritrea to provide testimony in exchange for asylum.
6. The general portrait of bin Laden"s business activities and his $50 million bank investment are from "Usama bin Ladin: Islamic Extremist Financier," the CIA a.s.sessment released in 1996. Specific land purchases and office details are from testimony of Jamal al-Fadl in the federal trial of al Qaeda members who attacked the U.S. emba.s.sies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, February 6, 2001.
7. Fadl testimony, February 6, 2001.
8. "Talk about jihad," ibid. Bin Laden"s movements and wariness are from Fadl testimony and author"s interviews with U.S. officials.
9. The Khartoum a.s.sa.s.sination attempt has been described in many published accounts, although sometimes the details vary slightly. The version here is from interviews with U.S. officials with access to CIA reporting.
10. Jamal al-Fadl was the embezzler. How bin Laden treated him is from his 2001 court testimony, February 6, 2001.
11. "Insatiable carnal desires" is from Joshua Teitelbaum, Holier Than Thou, Holier Than Thou, p. 58. By the CIA"s count in "Usama bin Ladin: Islamic Extremist Financier," 1996, his Advisory and Reformation Committee issued "over 350 pamphlets critical of the Saudi government." Greater Hijaz and Greater Yemen are from Teitelbaum, p. 58. By the CIA"s count in "Usama bin Ladin: Islamic Extremist Financier," 1996, his Advisory and Reformation Committee issued "over 350 pamphlets critical of the Saudi government." Greater Hijaz and Greater Yemen are from Teitelbaum, Holier Than Holier Than Thou, Thou, pp. 77-78. pp. 77-78.
12. Interviews with U.S. and British officials.
13. Prince Turki discussed the effort in an interview with ABC"s Nightline Nightline on December 10, 2001: "His mother went to see him. His uncle-his uncle was eighty years old. He went to see him in Sudan to try to convince him to come back." Bin Laden"s quotations are from Peter L. Bergen, on December 10, 2001: "His mother went to see him. His uncle-his uncle was eighty years old. He went to see him in Sudan to try to convince him to come back." Bin Laden"s quotations are from Peter L. Bergen, The Holy War, The Holy War, p. 89. His $1 million allowance is from National Commission staff statement no. 15, p. 3-4. p. 89. His $1 million allowance is from National Commission staff statement no. 15, p. 3-4.
14. Bakr quotation is from Bergen, ibid. How senior Saudi princes thought of bin Laden in this period is from interviews with Saudi officials.
15. In his congressional testimony on September 26, 2002, Black referred to bin Laden"s attempt to kill him but provided no details. This account is from interviews with U.S. officials.
16. Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, The Age of Sacred Terror, pp. 242-43. pp. 242-43.
17. Five contemporaneous witness interview reports, produced as evidence in Yousef "s trial, doc.u.ment in detail the conversations between Yousef and U.S. federal agents immediately after his arrest. See note 15 in chapter 13. In addition, Parr testified twice at federal trials about his rendition of Yousef and their conversations aboard the jet that brought Yousef from Islamabad to New York. Parr testified on August 12, 1996, in the Manila airline bombings case and on October 22, 1997, in Yousef "s World Trade Center bombing case. The description of Yousef "s shackling and examination aboard the plane is from Parr"s testimony. Quotations are used only where the reports themselves indicate exact quotations.
18. Interview with Fred Hitz, CIA inspector general during this period, March 8, 2002, Princeton, New Jersey (SC). Stephen Dycus et al., National Security Law, National Security Law, provides a detailed account of the legal issues. provides a detailed account of the legal issues.
19. Witness interview report by FBI Special Agent Bradley J. Garrett, dictated February 7, 1995, transcribed February 10, 1995.
20. Witness interview report by FBI special agent Bradley J. Garrett, "Pakistan to U.S. Airs.p.a.ce," dictated and transcribed February 8, 1995.
21. Discussions of motive and quotations, ibid.
22. Witness interview report by FBI Special Agent Charles B. Stern and Brian G. Parr, United States Secret Service, "Aircraft in Flight," dictated February 9, 1995, transcribed February 28, 1995.
23. Yousef "s comments about his flight to Pakistan, who aided him in Manila, and bin Laden, ibid.
24. The information about the guest house owned by bin Laden is from multiple published sources, including Benjamin and Simon, Age of Sacred Terror, Age of Sacred Terror, p. 237. Yousef had also spent many hours at the International Islamic University in Islamabad where Abdullah Azzam first lectured when he came to Pakistan, according to Mary Anne Weaver, p. 237. Yousef had also spent many hours at the International Islamic University in Islamabad where Abdullah Azzam first lectured when he came to Pakistan, according to Mary Anne Weaver, A A Portrait of Egypt, Portrait of Egypt, p. 196. p. 196.
25. Stern and Parr witness interview report, "Aircraft in Flight," February 9, 1995.
26. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed has recently been described by U.S. officials as a suspected mastermind of the September 11 attacks. He was arrested in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, on March 1, 2003, by Pakistani police and intelligence officers. Most accounts sketch his life in tracks that run parallel to Ramzi Yousef "s: of Pakistani origin but raised in Kuwait and educated in engineering in the West. Mohammed briefly attended a Baptist college in North Carolina before transferring to North Carolina A&T, a historically black university, where he studied mechanical engineering. He reportedly told American interrogators that he joined the Muslim Brotherhood at age 16.
27. The New York Times, The New York Times, June 9, 2002. June 9, 2002.
28. Morocco attack, The New York Times, The New York Times, January 14, 2001. Air France hijacking and Eiffel Tower kamikaze plan from Eleanor Hill, Joint Inquiry Staff Statement, September 18, 2002. Belgian manual, January 14, 2001. Air France hijacking and Eiffel Tower kamikaze plan from Eleanor Hill, Joint Inquiry Staff Statement, September 18, 2002. Belgian manual, The New York The New York Times, Times, January 14, 2001. Mindanao attack, January 14, 2001. Mindanao attack, Asiaweek, Asiaweek, May 5, 1995. For a thorough account of the Mubarak a.s.sa.s.sination attempt, see Weaver, May 5, 1995. For a thorough account of the Mubarak a.s.sa.s.sination attempt, see Weaver, A Portrait of Egypt, A Portrait of Egypt, pp. 174-77. Threat to Lake, Benjamin and Simon, pp. 174-77. Threat to Lake, Benjamin and Simon, Age of Age of Sacred Terror, Sacred Terror, p. 244. Among the multiple published accounts of the Riyadh bombing, Teitelbaum, p. 244. Among the multiple published accounts of the Riyadh bombing, Teitelbaum, Holier Than Thou, Holier Than Thou, pp. 73-74, has substantial detail. Among the multiple accounts of the bombing of the Egyptian emba.s.sy in Islamabad, al-Zawahiri, pp. 73-74, has substantial detail. Among the multiple accounts of the bombing of the Egyptian emba.s.sy in Islamabad, al-Zawahiri, Knights Under Knights Under the Prophet"s Banner, the Prophet"s Banner, provides the perspective of one of the conspirators. provides the perspective of one of the conspirators.
29. Eleanor Hill, Joint Inquiry Staff Statement, September 18, 2002.
30. Woolsey"s December visit and CIA reporting on Shiite threats during 1995 are from "Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Staff Report on the Khobar Towers Terrorist Attack," September 12, 1996. That Hezbollah was the reported source of the threat against Lake is from an interview with a Clinton administration official. "Out of nowhere" is from the author"s interview with Prince Turki, August 2, 2002, Cancun, Mexico (SC). Saudi Shiites with links to Iranian intelligence services detonated a truck bomb near a U.S. Air Force apartment compound called Khobar Towers in eastern Saudi Arabia on June 25, 1996, killing nineteen American airmen and wounding hundreds of others. The CIA"s Riyadh station, the Defense Intelligence Agency, and Saudi intelligence detected the Shiite terrorist threat in the kingdom many months before the Khobar bombing occurred. The September 12 staff report describes intelligence reporting and protection planning in Saudi Arabia during 1995 in some detail. After the Khobar bombing, Saudi Arabia"s Interior Ministry was slow to cooperate with FBI investigators, creating new tensions in the U.S.-Saudi relationship.
31. Federal Register, Executive Order 12947, January 25, 1995. The failure to list al Qaeda in 1995 is difficult to understand, given the steady stream of reporting then in hand at the CIA about bin Laden"s contacts in Khartoum with anti-Israeli groups such as Hamas, Hezbollah, Algeria"s Armed Islamic Group, Egypt"s Islamic Group, and some even more radical Egyptian factions. At that point, however, al Qaeda had not formally declared war on the United States or Israel, and it had not been directly implicated in any terrorist attacks. Later, in 1997, the State Department released its first list of officially designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations, and it did not include al Qaeda on that list, either. By then the evidence about al Qaeda"s global terrorism was far more substantial and far more widely available on the public record. The State Department"s counterterrorism coordinator at the time, Philip C. Wilc.o.x, said in February 1995 that while "there are informal contacts among Islamists . . . there is little hard evidence of a coordinated international network or command and control apparatus among these groups." Benjamin and Simon, in Age of Sacred Age of Sacred Terror, Terror, quote Robert Blitzer, who was in charge of the FBI"s international terrorism division until 1996, as saying that until his departure, "the community kept saying ad hoc terrorists and loosely affiliated terrorists and I didn"t agree. . . . I thought this was some kind of major network. We just didn"t have enough of an intelligence base, didn"t know how bin Laden and others were commanding it, how they moved people and how they moved money. We didn"t have that information sorted out." quote Robert Blitzer, who was in charge of the FBI"s international terrorism division until 1996, as saying that until his departure, "the community kept saying ad hoc terrorists and loosely affiliated terrorists and I didn"t agree. . . . I thought this was some kind of major network. We just didn"t have enough of an intelligence base, didn"t know how bin Laden and others were commanding it, how they moved people and how they moved money. We didn"t have that information sorted out."
32. Interviews with Saudi officials and U.S. officials. Among the former Riyadh CIA station chiefs who were consultants for Prince Turki was Ray Close, who had run the station during the 1970s. Another station chief from a later period retired to Spain on a Saudi consultancy, according to his former colleagues. A number of Middle East specialists from Britain"s MI6 intelligence service also acquired retainer contracts. Frank Anderson, the CIA"s Near East Division chief, who had argued that the jihadists from Afghanistan were not a major factor in North African Islamist insurgencies, left the agency in 1995. He soon joined a Washington consultancy that maintained close ties with the Saudi government.
33. The author is grateful to Walter Pincus who first reported on this doc.u.ment in The The Washington Post Washington Post on June 6, 2002, and who provided a copy of the pa.s.sages a.n.a.lyzing Sunni Islamic terrorism. on June 6, 2002, and who provided a copy of the pa.s.sages a.n.a.lyzing Sunni Islamic terrorism.
34. Ibid. All quotations are from the doc.u.ment.
35. The estimate remains cla.s.sified, but CIA director George Tenet quoted from it at length in his October 17, 2002, prepared testimony to the Joint Inquiry Committee investigating the September 11 attacks. Eleanor Hill also quoted portions of the estimate in her September 18, 2002, Joint Inquiry Staff Statement. The quotations here are from Tenet"s testimony, except for "new breed," which is from the Joint Inquiry Committee"s final report, p. 4, and "As far as . . . his a.s.sociates," from the final report, p. 313.
36. Ibid. "New terrorist phenomenon" from National Commission, staff statement no. 5, p. 1-2. Estimate t.i.tle from staff statement no. 11, p. 4.
CHAPTER 16: "SLOWLY, SLOWLY SUCKED INTO IT".
1. The account of Durrani"s ascension is drawn primarily from Olaf Caroe, The The Pathans, Pathans, pp. 254-55, and Martin Ewans, pp. 254-55, and Martin Ewans, Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics, Politics, pp. 22-23. A former British officer in the tribal areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan, Caroe draws on multiple original and imperial sources. pp. 22-23. A former British officer in the tribal areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan, Caroe draws on multiple original and imperial sources.
2. Caroe, The Pathans. The Pathans. He attributes the story of Durrani"s selection at the He attributes the story of Durrani"s selection at the jirga jirga to the 1905 autobiography of the "Iron Amir" of Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman, who recorded the story as it was recounted "in the Kabul annals." Whatever its basis in fact, the story"s themes-Durrani"s humble silence and the attempt by more powerful khans to choose a weak king-became an oft-repeated, shaping narrative of Afghan politics. to the 1905 autobiography of the "Iron Amir" of Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman, who recorded the story as it was recounted "in the Kabul annals." Whatever its basis in fact, the story"s themes-Durrani"s humble silence and the attempt by more powerful khans to choose a weak king-became an oft-repeated, shaping narrative of Afghan politics.
3. Ibid., pp. 251-85. The first dynasty of Durrani royals pa.s.sed from Ahmed Shah through his son Timur, located in the Saddozai Popalzai tribal branch. The second and third dynasties, terminating with King Zahir Shah in 1973, drew its leaders from the Mohammedzai Barakzai tribal branch.
4. The Naqibullah quotation is from Jon Lee Anderson, The New Yorker, The New Yorker, January 28, 2002. Anderson had traveled in southern Afghanistan during the anti-Soviet jihad and had spent weeks in a mujahedin encampment overseen by Naqibullah. After the Taliban lost Kandahar in December 2001, Anderson met up with Naqibullah again and spent several days in his company. He saw that the warlord was carrying a prescription written in Germany for antipsychotic medication and asked him about it, prompting Naqibullah"s explanation. January 28, 2002. Anderson had traveled in southern Afghanistan during the anti-Soviet jihad and had spent weeks in a mujahedin encampment overseen by Naqibullah. After the Taliban lost Kandahar in December 2001, Anderson met up with Naqibullah again and spent several days in his company. He saw that the warlord was carrying a prescription written in Germany for antipsychotic medication and asked him about it, prompting Naqibullah"s explanation.
5. Interview with Spozhmai Maiwandi, a Pashtun broadcaster with Voice of America who chronicled the Taliban"s rise and spoke regularly with Mullah Omar and other Tal- iban leaders, March 28, 2002, Washington, D.C. (GW). Maiwandi"s frequent interviews with the Taliban on VOA"s Pashto-language service led some other Afghans, especially those loyal to Ahmed Shah Ma.s.soud, to denounce the U.S.-funded radio service as pro- Taliban. VOA"s reputation in turn fueled suspicions in the region that the Taliban was an instrument of U.S. policy.
6. The account of the rural roots of the Taliban is mainly from Olivier Roy, "Has Islamism a Future in Afghanistan?," in William Maley, ed., Fundamentalism Reborn, Fundamentalism Reborn, pp. 204-11, as well as from interviews with Maiwandi and other Kandahar Pashtuns. Ahmed Rashid"s pp. 204-11, as well as from interviews with Maiwandi and other Kandahar Pashtuns. Ahmed Rashid"s Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil, Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil, and Fundamentalism in Central Asia and Fundamentalism in Central Asia is the definitive book-length account of the movement. Michael Griffin, is the definitive book-length account of the movement. Michael Griffin, Reaping the Whirlwind, Reaping the Whirlwind, and Larry P. Goodson, and Larry P. Goodson, Afghanistan"s Endless Afghanistan"s Endless War, War, also provide detailed accounts of the movement"s origins and rise. also provide detailed accounts of the movement"s origins and rise.
7. Rashid, Taliban, Taliban, pp. 90-91, reports that the pp. 90-91, reports that the madra.s.sa madra.s.sa long funded about four hundred places for Afghan students. In 1999 it had fifteen thousand applicants. Rashid quotes the Haqqannia"s leader, Pakistani politician Samiul Haq, complaining that Pakistani intelligence ignored his long funded about four hundred places for Afghan students. In 1999 it had fifteen thousand applicants. Rashid quotes the Haqqannia"s leader, Pakistani politician Samiul Haq, complaining that Pakistani intelligence ignored his madra.s.sa madra.s.sa during the anti- Soviet jihad, favoring a network of Muslim Brotherhood- linked religious schools affiliated with Jamaat-e-Islami and Hekmatyar. Jamaa-e-Islami was the Islamist political rival to Haq"s political party. during the anti- Soviet jihad, favoring a network of Muslim Brotherhood- linked religious schools affiliated with Jamaat-e-Islami and Hekmatyar. Jamaa-e-Islami was the Islamist political rival to Haq"s political party.
8. Martin Ewans, Afghanistan: A Short History Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics, of Its People and Politics, p. 204. For deeper accounts of the roots of the School of Islamic Studies at Deoband and its role in Muslim theology and anticolonial movements, Ewans recommends A. A. Rizvi, p. 204. For deeper accounts of the roots of the School of Islamic Studies at Deoband and its role in Muslim theology and anticolonial movements, Ewans recommends A. A. Rizvi, A A History of Sufism in India, History of Sufism in India, two volumes, 1978 and 1983, and Rizvi"s two volumes, 1978 and 1983, and Rizvi"s History of Dar al-Ulum History of Dar al-Ulum Deoband, Deoband, 1980. 1980.
9. Rashid, Taliban, Taliban, pp. 87-94. pp. 87-94.
10. Interview with Hashmat Ghani Ahmadzai, May 12, 2002, Kabul, Afghanistan (GW).
11. Interview with Qayum Karzai, May 19, 2002, Kabul, Afghanistan (GW), and with Hamid Karzai, October 21, 2002, Kabul, Afghanistan (SC).
12. This account of Karzai"s detention by Fahim, his interrogation, and the circ.u.mstances of his escape is drawn from interviews with multiple sources involved in the episode, including Qayum Karzai, May 19, 2002, and Afghan vice president Hedayat Amin-Arsala, May 21, 2002, Kabul, Afghanistan (GW). Amin-Arsala was foreign minister at the time of Karzai"s detention. Amin-Arsala was never certain who ordered Karzai"s arrest: "I"m not really quite sure if [then Afghan president Rabbani] ordered his arrest. But certainly the intelligence people, who were headed by Fahim, they knew."
13. Interview with Hamid Karzai, October 21, 2002.
14. That Karzai provided $50,000 in cash and a large cache of weapons is from Karzai"s interview with Ahmed Rashid, The The Daily Telegraph, Daily Telegraph, December 8, 2001. Why Karzai supported the Taliban and that many Pashtuns hoped they would lead to the king"s return are from interviews with Qayum Karzai, May 19, 2002; Hedayat Amin-Arsala, May 21, 2002; Hashmat Ghani Ahmadzai, May 12, 2002; and Zalmai Ra.s.soul, May 18, 2002, Kabul, Afghanistan (GW). December 8, 2001. Why Karzai supported the Taliban and that many Pashtuns hoped they would lead to the king"s return are from interviews with Qayum Karzai, May 19, 2002; Hedayat Amin-Arsala, May 21, 2002; Hashmat Ghani Ahmadzai, May 12, 2002; and Zalmai Ra.s.soul, May 18, 2002, Kabul, Afghanistan (GW).
15. Even Omar"s birth year is uncertain. Rashid, Taliban, Taliban, p. 23, places Omar"s birth "sometime around 1959." An undated CIA biographical fact sheet about Omar describes his birth as "circa 1950." Each of these dates has been used in various press accounts to estimate Omar"s age, compounding the confusion. The account given to U.S. diplomats is from the decla.s.sified State Department cable "Finally, a Talkative Talib," from Islamabad to Washington, February 20, 1995, released by the National Security Archive. p. 23, places Omar"s birth "sometime around 1959." An undated CIA biographical fact sheet about Omar describes his birth as "circa 1950." Each of these dates has been used in various press accounts to estimate Omar"s age, compounding the confusion. The account given to U.S. diplomats is from the decla.s.sified State Department cable "Finally, a Talkative Talib," from Islamabad to Washington, February 20, 1995, released by the National Security Archive.
16. CIA fact sheet, ibid. Omar"s ties to Bashar and "charismatic nor articulate" are from "Finally, a Talkative Talib," ibid.
17. Taliban legend, a.s.sociated Press, September 20, 2001. Red Cross, Sunday Times, Sunday Times, September 23, 2001. September 23, 2001.
18. The Washington Post, The Washington Post, December 27, 2001. December 27, 2001.
19. Toronto Star, Toronto Star, December 9, 2001. December 9, 2001.
20. "A simple band . . . goal" is from Time, Time, October 1, 2001. "The Taliban . . . our people" is from the a.s.sociated Press, September 20, 2001. October 1, 2001. "The Taliban . . . our people" is from the a.s.sociated Press, September 20, 2001.
21. Roy, "Has Islamism a Future in Afghanistan?," p. 211. "Of course, the problem with the Taliban is that they mean what they say," Roy wrote three years after their initial emergence. "They do not want a King, because there is no King in Islam. . . . The Taliban are not a factor for stabilization in Afghanistan."
22. Interview with Ben.a.z.ir Bhutto, May 5, 2002, Dubai, United Arab Emirates (GW). This section is also drawn in part from interviews with Pakistani officials close to Bhutto.
23. The Bhutto quotations are from the Ben.a.z.ir Bhutto interview, May 5, 2002.
24. Ibid.
25. All quotations, ibid.
26. Interview with Lt. Gen. Javed Ashraf Qazi (Ret.), May 19, 2002, Rawalpindi, Pakistan (SC). Qazi was the director-general of Pakistani intelligence at the time. "This was seventeen tunnels!" he said. "Seventeen tunnels full of arms and ammunition. Enough to raise almost half the size of Pakistan"s army." The dump had been created just before the end of the anticommunist phase of the Afghan war. "Both sides, they pumped in an immense amount of weapons. . . . And dumps were created." Other detailed accounts of the seizure of the Spin Boldak dump include Anthony Davis, "How the Taliban Became a Military Force," in Maley, ed., Fundamentalism Reborn, Fundamentalism Reborn, pp. 45-46, Rashid, pp. 45-46, Rashid, Taliban, Taliban, pp. 27-28, and Rashid, "Pakistan and the Taliban," in Maley, ed., pp. 27-28, and Rashid, "Pakistan and the Taliban," in Maley, ed., Fundamentalism Fundamentalism Reborn, Reborn, p. 81. Rashid, citing interviews with Pakistani military officials and diplomats, estimates the dump held about eighteen thousand AK-47 a.s.sault rifles and 120 artillery pieces. p. 81. Rashid, citing interviews with Pakistani military officials and diplomats, estimates the dump held about eighteen thousand AK-47 a.s.sault rifles and 120 artillery pieces.
27. The extent of Babar"s involvement with the Taliban at the time of their emergence remains unclear. A boastful man, Babar fueled suspicion that he had created and armed the movement by introducing Taliban leaders to the likes of Prince Turki, the Saudi intelligence chief, and calling them "my children." But several a.s.sociates of Babar said these quotes have been blown out of proportion and they mainly reflect Babar"s habits of bl.u.s.tery speech.
28. Mullah Naqibullah, one of Kandahar"s dominant warlords at the time, said that as the Taliban swept into the city, he and other local Pashtun powers were urged by Hamid Karzai, other Pashtun leaders, and President Rabbani in Kabul not to fight against the Taliban. For Rabbani and Ma.s.soud the Taliban initially looked like a Pashtun force that could hurt their main enemy, Hekmatyar.
29. Davis, "How the Taliban Became a Military Force," pp. 48-49.
30. Interview with Qazi, May 19, 2002.
31. Interview with Bhutto, May 5, 2002. The CIA reported on the links between ISI"s Afghan training camps and the Kashmir insurgency during this period, at one point threatening to place Pakistan on the U.S. list of nations deemed to be terrorist sponsors.
32. All quotations from "chap in Kandahar" through "all of them" are from the interview with Qazi, May 19, 2002.
33. All quotations from "I became slowly" through "carte blanche" are from the interview with Bhutto, May 5, 2002.
34. Rashid, "Pakistan and the Taliban," p. 86, describes the internal ISI debate about the Taliban during 1995. "The debate centered around those largely Pashtun officers involved in covert operations on the ground who wanted greater support for the Taliban, and other officers who were involved in longer term intelligence gathering and strategic planning who wished to keep Pakistan"s support to a minimum so as not to worsen tensions with Central Asia and Iran. The Pashtun grid in the army high command eventually played a major role in determining the military and ISI"s decision to give greater support to the Taliban."
35. Interview with Bhutto, May 5, 2002.
36. Interview with Ahmed Badeeb, February 1, 2002, Jedda, Saudi Arabia (SC).
37. Scene and quotations, ibid.
38. Ibid. See note 27.
39. Turki"s interview with MBC, November 6, 2001.
40. After Hekmatyar was forced into exile by the Taliban, he visited Prince Turki in Saudi Arabia, hoping for a.s.sistance, according to Saudi officials. When a stunned Turki asked Hekmatyar why the kingdom should help him when he had denounced the royal family in its time of need in 1991, Hekmatyar shrugged obsequiously. His speeches then had been "only politics," he said, according to the Saudi account.
41. That Saudi intelligence paid cash bonuses to ISI officers is from an interview with a Saudi a.n.a.lyst. That Saudi Arabia subsidized Pakistan with discounted oil is from multiple interviews with Saudi officials. That Saudi intelligence preferred to deal directly with Pakistani intelligence is from the interview with Badeeb, February 1, 2002.
42. "Situation reports" and development of the liaison are from an interview with a senior Saudi official.
43. Prince Turki has said publicly that the Taliban "did not receive a single penny in cash from the kingdom from its founding," only humanitarian aid. None of the kingdom"s records are transparent or published, so it is impossible to be sure, but Turki"s claim, even if interpreted narrowly, seems unlikely to withstand scrutiny. Nawaf Obaid, a Saudi intelligence a.n.a.lyst, wrote in a 1998 master"s thesis, "Improving U.S. Intelligence a.n.a.lysis on the Saudi Arabian Decision Making Process," that most of the Saudi aid to the Taliban was funneled by the kingdom"s official religious establishment. Obaid quotes a "high-ranking official in the Ministry of Islamic Guidance" as saying that after the Soviet Union was defeated in Afghanistan, the kingdom"s religious leaders "focused on funding and encouraging the Taliban." Human Rights Watch quoted journalists who saw white-painted C-130 Hercules transport aircraft which they identified as Saudi Arabian at Kandahar airport in 1996 delivering artillery and small arms ammunition to Taliban soldiers. There were subsequent reports of strong arms supply links between the Taliban and commercial dealers operating from the United Arab Emirates as well. Taliban religious police, Human Rights Watch concluded, were "funded directly by Saudi Arabia; this relatively generous funding . . . enabled it to become the most powerful agency within the Islamic Emirate."
44. Interview with Prince Turki, August 2, 2002, Cancun, Mexico (SC). Turki also said, "We had taken a policy, since the civil war started in Afghanistan, that we"re not going to support any group in Afghanistan, financially or otherwise, from the government but that humanitarian aid [from Saudi Arabia] could continue. And it was mostly through these [charity] organizations that the humanitarian aid went to Afghanistan. . . . Now, I can"t tell you that individuals did not go and give money to the Taliban. I"m sure that happened. But not the inst.i.tutions themselves."
45. See note 43.
46. Interviews with senior Saudi officials.
47. Interviews with U.S. officials. All of the quotations are from State Department cables between November 3, 1994, and February 20, 1995, decla.s.sified and released by the National Security Archive.