=Lobbying and Bribery.=--In all our states a large proportion of the legislation enacted affects directly or indirectly the interests of particular persons, cla.s.ses, or localities. As a result, interested parties bring great pressure to bear upon the members to pa.s.s certain bills or to reject certain others.
_Methods of the Lobbyist._--Usually when the legislature meets, the paid representatives of interested individuals, corporations, or local governments appear on the scene to urge legislation in their interests or to defeat bills introduced that are unfavorable to them. These persons are known as "lobbyists," and the means they employ to secure or prevent legislation are often improper and sometimes venal. Sometimes money is used to bribe members to vote for or against pending measures, and there are few states indeed where charges of this kind have not been made. In one state recently, money was contributed in large quant.i.ties by persons interested in preventing certain legislation, and the sum thus contributed was known as the "jack pot" fund, out of which members were handsomely paid for their votes. In a special message to the legislature of New York state, Governor Hughes declared that certain disclosures had "caused honest citizens to tingle with shame and indignation and made irresistible the demand that every proper means should be employed to purge and purify the legislature." The situation described by the governor as existing in New York, unfortunately exists in other states as well.
_"Strike" Bills._--Some of the great corporations maintain regularly paid lobbyists at the state capitals when the legislature is in session, not so much for the purpose of securing legislation in their interests as to prevent the enactment of laws to which they are opposed. Sometimes they are practically forced to have lobbyists on the ground to prevent the enactment of what are called "strike" bills, that is, bills introduced by unscrupulous members for the purpose of extorting money from the corporations to pay for defeating them.
_Anti-lobbying Legislation._--The evils growing out of the practice of the special interests in maintaining paid lobbyists near the legislature have led to attempts in a number of states to restrict such abuses by legislation. This legislation, in general, makes it unlawful to attempt to influence improperly any legislator. In several states lobbyists are required to make known the purpose of their business and to register their names with the secretary of state, and after the adjournment of the legislature to file a sworn statement of their expenses.
=Direct Legislation: the Initiative and the Referendum.=--The legislature is not the only agency for enacting law and determining the public policies of the state. Laws on certain subjects may be made by the people themselves acting directly in their primary capacity as well as through the agency of representatives. This is done through what are called the initiative and the referendum. The initiative is a device by which the people themselves may propose laws and have them submitted to the voters for their approval or rejection. Through the referendum the people reserve the power to approve or reject by popular vote certain laws enacted by the legislature.
_Varieties of Referendum._--The referendum may be obligatory or optional in character, that is, the approval of the electorate may be required by the const.i.tution before certain laws shall go into effect, or the legislature in its discretion may refer a law to the people for their opinion. Thus the const.i.tutions of many states declare that no law for increasing the debt of the state beyond a certain amount shall be valid until it has been submitted to the voters and approved by them. Again, the referendum may be mandatory or advisory in character. Under the mandatory form, the legislature is required to carry out the will of the electorate as p.r.o.nounced on any subject referred to the voters, while the advisory referendum is nothing more than an expression of opinion which may or may not be followed by legislative action.
Again, the referendum may be state-wide in its scope, as where a general law or question of public policy is submitted to the voters of the whole state, or it may be of a local character, as where a law affecting a particular community is referred to the voters thereof.
The referendum as a device for adopting const.i.tutions and const.i.tutional amendments is as old as the republic itself, and is now the general practice (pp. 65, 70). In all the states except Delaware proposed amendments must be submitted to the voters at a general or special election, and must be adopted by them before going into effect. The use of the referendum for ordinary lawmaking is also an old practice, though it is much more generally resorted to now than formerly. Thus very early in our history it was employed for such purposes as the incorporation of towns, borrowing money, the location of county sites, division of counties, subscription to stock in railroads and other enterprises by states, counties, or towns, and the levying of special taxes for the support of schools. One of the important uses to which it was put was the determination of the question whether intoxicating liquor should be sold in a particular locality. In time what were called local option laws were pa.s.sed in many states, giving the people of towns, cities, or other local divisions of the state the privilege of determining by popular vote whether liquor should be sold within their limits. Other matters that have frequently been made the subject of a referendum are: the granting of the suffrage to negroes, and sometimes the enfranchis.e.m.e.nt of women; the location of state capitals; the sale of school lands; the incorporation of state banks of issue; the granting of aid to railroads; the adoption of the township form of local government; the construction of ca.n.a.ls; the erection of public libraries; and many other matters too numerous to mention. There is no state in which the referendum is not provided by the const.i.tution for certain kinds of legislation, and there is hardly a general election held nowadays in which the voters are not called upon to pa.s.s judgment upon some proposed act of the legislature or some question of public policy.
In Illinois there has been enacted what is known as the "public opinion law," which provides that upon pet.i.tion by 10 per cent of the registered voters of the state the legislature is required to submit to the voters any question of public policy for their opinion. The popular vote, however, is nothing more than an expression of opinion by the voters and is not binding upon the legislature.
_The Oregon System._--The idea of the initiative and the referendum has been carried out most fully in Oregon, whose const.i.tution provides that 8 per cent of the voters may by pet.i.tion propose an amendment to the const.i.tution, and when so proposed it must be submitted to the voters and if approved by a majority of them the amendment becomes a part of the const.i.tution. Likewise the const.i.tution of Oregon provides for the initiation and adoption of ordinary laws by the people. It further provides that upon the pet.i.tion of 5 per cent of the voters any act of the legislature, with certain exceptions, before going into effect, must be submitted to the people for their approval, and if not approved by a majority of those voting, it shall not go into effect. From 1904 to 1914, 130 const.i.tutional amendments and statutes were submitted to popular vote, of which 46 were adopted. For the information of the voters, "publicity pamphlets" are provided, containing an explanation of the measures upon which they are called to vote, together with arguments for and against each proposition. In 1912 these arguments (on 37 measures) made a book of 252 pages.
_Initiative and Referendum in other States._--Various other states (South Dakota, Utah, Colorado, Montana, Idaho, Missouri, Maine, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Arizona, Nevada, California, Washington, Michigan, Ohio, North Dakota, Ma.s.sachusetts, and Mississippi) have established both the initiative and the referendum in some form or other. The initiative and referendum are in use also in many cities, especially those under the commission plan of government. Usually the number who are empowered to initiate a proposed law or ordinance is 8 or 10 per cent of the registered vote. In Texas the referendum is applied to the formulation by political parties of their party policies, 10 per cent of the voters being allowed to propose policies which must be submitted to the party for their opinion.
_Merits of the Referendum._--One of the chief merits of the referendum is that it serves as a check on the vices, follies, and errors of judgment of the legislature. Another merit claimed for the referendum is its educative effect upon the electorate. Where the voters are frequently called upon to pa.s.s judgment upon the acts of the legislature or upon questions of public policy, they must, if they discharge their duty properly, study the measures submitted to them and thus become trained in public affairs. The enjoyment of such a privilege also tends to stimulate their interest in political affairs and increase their feeling of responsibility for the good government of the state.
The advantage of the initiative is that it puts in the hands of the people the power to bring forward needed measures of legislation and secure a vote on them whenever the legislature refuses to act in obedience to the popular mind.
=References.=--BEARD, American Government and Politics, ch. xxv.
BRYCE, The American Commonwealth (abridged edition), ch. x.x.xix.
DEALEY, Our State Const.i.tutions, ch. vii. HART, Actual Government, ch. vii. REINSCH, American Legislatures and Legislative Methods, chs. iv-x. WILSON, The State, secs. 1128-1142.
=Doc.u.mentary and Ill.u.s.trative Material.=--1. The legislative manual or blue book of the state. 2. A map showing the division of the state into legislative districts. 3. Rules of procedure of the two houses of the legislature. 4. Specimen copies of bills and resolutions. 5. Messages of the governor to the legislature. 6. The last volume of the session laws of the state.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. How many members are there in the senate of your state legislature?
How many in the house of representatives? What is the term of the members of each house? What are the qualifications for membership? What is the salary?
2. What is the principle of apportionment of the members of each house?
Are there any inequalities of representation among the districts or counties from which the members are chosen? What county has the largest number of representatives? What county the smallest number? Have any charges been made that the state is "gerrymandered" in the interest of the dominant party?
3. How many committees are there in each house? Of what committees are your representatives and your senator members? What is the average number of members on each committee? Name some of the most important committees. What are the princ.i.p.al officers and employees of each house?
4. How often does the legislature of your state meet in regular session?
Are there any const.i.tutional restrictions on the length of the sessions?
Have any extraordinary sessions been held in recent years? If so, for what purpose? Are there any restrictions on the power of the legislature when in extraordinary session?
5. How many acts were pa.s.sed at the last regular session? How many joint resolutions were adopted? What is the difference between an act and a joint resolution?
6. What are the provisions in the const.i.tution of your state in regard to the procedure of the legislature in pa.s.sing bills? Find out from the rules of each house how a bill is introduced, considered, and pa.s.sed.
How are special and local acts pa.s.sed?
7. Is there a law in your state to regulate lobbying? What is the penalty for accepting a bribe?
8. Is there a legislative reference bureau or other agency in your state for collecting information for the benefit of members or for a.s.sisting them in the preparation of bills?
9. Are there any provisions in the const.i.tution of your state in regard to the initiative or referendum? Do you know of any instance in recent years in which the people of the state were called upon to vote on a proposed legislative act or a question of public policy? Is there a local option liquor law in your state? If so, have the people of your county or city taken advantage of it?
10. Do you think members of the legislature when instructed by their const.i.tuents to vote for or against a certain measure, should obey the instructions, or vote according to their own judgment of what is best without regard to the expressed will of the people?
11. Is there any organization in your state for studying the records of members and for securing the election of honest and efficient legislators?
CHAPTER V
THE STATE EXECUTIVE
=The Governor; Election and Qualifications.=--Each state has a chief executive styled a governor, who is charged with the execution of the laws. In all he is elected by the people. In nearly all, a plurality of the popular vote is sufficient to elect, but in a few states a majority is required and if no candidate receives a majority of the popular vote, either the legislature makes the choice, or a second popular election is held.
To be eligible to the office of governor, a man must have attained a certain age, usually thirty years, and generally he must be a citizen of the United States; in many states he must have been a citizen for a period ranging from five to twenty years. He is also usually required to have been a resident of the state for a period ranging from one to ten years.
=Term.=--The term of the governor in twenty-five states is two years; in the others it is four years except in New Jersey, where it is three years. Formerly the term was one year in several states, but by 1920 all of them had changed it to two years. A one-year term seems to have little to recommend it, for experience is as necessary for the successful administration of public affairs as for the conduct of private business, and familiarity with the duties of an office of such importance cannot be acquired in so short a time. However, where the one-year term prevailed, it was customary to reelect the governor to a second term. In a number of states, the governor is ineligible to two successive terms, the idea being that if reeligible he would make use of his official power to secure his reelection. A few state const.i.tutions wisely provide that he may hold office until his successor has qualified, and thus the danger of a vacancy is obviated.
=Salary.=--The salary of the governor is everywhere comparatively small, though in recent years the tendency has been to increase it. In three fourths of the states now the salary is $5,000 per year or more. In California, Ma.s.sachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, it is $10,000 per year, and in Illinois it is $12,000. The smallest salary is $2,500 per year, which is the amount allowed in Nebraska.
Frequently the state provides the governor with a residence styled the "executive mansion." A contingent fund out of which to meet the expense of emergencies in the execution of laws is usually placed at his disposal, but this fund cannot be used for private purposes. Some governors, however, have not been very careful to distinguish between private and official purposes, and not infrequently the use made of this fund has been the subject of legislative investigation and of popular criticism.
=Organization of the Executive Department.=--The organization of the executive department of the state government is different in one important respect from that of the executive department of the United States. In the national government the responsibility for the administration of executive affairs is concentrated in the hands of the President, and the heads of the various departments are all his appointees; they are responsible directly to him for the discharge of their duties, are, within the limits of the law, subject to his direction, and may be removed by him for any reason which to him may seem expedient. The executive power of the state, on the contrary, instead of being concentrated in the hands of the governor, is really divided between him and a number of other state officers, who are generally elected by the people and over whom he has little or no control. They are, in short, his colleagues rather than his subordinates. This method of organizing the executive power has justly been criticized on the ground that it introduces a division of responsibility and lack of co-ordination in the state administration.
Thus, although the governor is charged with the execution of the laws, he usually has no power to direct the attorney-general to inst.i.tute proceedings against a person or corporation for violating the law, as the President of the United States might do in a similar case. Again, he may have reason to believe that the state treasurer is a defaulter, but in most of the states he has no power to examine into the affairs of the treasurer"s office, or to remove him from office. And so with the other princ.i.p.al officers that collectively make up the executive department.
The responsibility of these officials is usually to the people alone, and responsibility in such cases cannot always be enforced, for they are elected for specific terms and cannot be removed before the expiration of their terms, except by the c.u.mbersome method of impeachment.
_The Lieutenant Governor._--In about two thirds of the states there are lieutenant governors chosen for the same time and in the same manner as the governor. About the only duty of this official is to preside over the deliberations of the senate. In case of a vacancy in the office of governor on account of death, resignation, or removal, or in case of his absence from the state, the lieutenant governor performs the duties of the office for the time being.
_Executive Councils._--Three of the New England states (Ma.s.sachusetts, Maine, and New Hampshire) have executive councils--survivals of colonial days--which share the executive power with the governor to a considerable extent. Their consent is necessary to the validity of many of his acts, such as the making of appointments, the granting of pardons, and the like. A modified form of the executive council is found in a few other states.
=Other Executive Officers.=--Besides the governor, who is the chief executive, there are in every state a number of state officers each in charge of a particular branch of the administrative service.
_Secretary of State._--The first of these in rank is the secretary of state, who is the custodian of the state archives and of the great seal of the state; has charge of the publication and preservation of the laws; countersigns the proclamations and commissions issued by the governor and keeps a record of them; issues certificates of incorporation to companies incorporated under the laws of the state; and discharges other miscellaneous duties which vary in the different states. He is elected by the people in all the states except a very few where he is either appointed by the governor or chosen by the legislature.
_The Treasurer_ of the state, as the name indicates, is the keeper of the public moneys, such as taxes, trust funds, and the like, and upon warrants issued by the auditor or other proper authority, he pays out money appropriated by the legislature. Everywhere he is elected by the people, usually for a short term, and is required to give a heavy bond so as to insure the state against loss in case of his carelessness or dishonesty. He is generally paid a salary, which is increased in some cases by the practice of treasurers depositing the state"s money in banks from which they receive interest. The treasurer of a certain Western state received thousands of dollars a year in this way, until the legislature pa.s.sed a law requiring him to turn into the state treasury all moneys received in the form of interest on state deposits.
_Auditor._--Another financial officer found in all the states is the auditor or comptroller, whose duties, in general, are to audit the accounts of the state and issue warrants upon the treasurer for the payment of moneys which have been appropriated by the legislature. A warrant issued by the auditor is the treasurer"s authority for paying money out of the treasury, and without such an order he has no lawful right to make a disburs.e.m.e.nt. Other duties of a miscellaneous character are imposed upon auditors in the different states.
_Superintendent of Education._--Another important official is the superintendent or commissioner of public education, who has charge of the larger educational interests of the state. He supervises the administration of the school laws, distributes the school fund among the local districts, makes rules and regulations in regard to the holding of teachers" inst.i.tutes, makes reports to the legislature concerning the educational conditions and needs of the state, and is frequently a member of the state board of education and of the boards of trustees of the state educational inst.i.tutions.
_Other Officers._--Besides the officials mentioned above, there are a mult.i.tude of other officers and employees in the larger states, such as the commissioner of agriculture, the commissioner of immigration, the commissioner of labor, state engineer, railroad commissioners, superintendent of public works, state printer, factory inspectors, pure food and dairy commissioners, state architect, land commissioner, mine inspectors, superintendents of insurance, and many others too numerous to mention. Of course, not every state has all these, but some of the more populous ones such as New York and Ma.s.sachusetts have most of them and others in addition.