+_Example_+.--The Psalmist says, "I prevented [antic.i.p.ated] the dawning of the morning."
SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS.
+_To the Teacher_+.--It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand, transpose, and to subst.i.tute different words. They thus learn to express the same thought in a variety of ways. Any reading-book or history will furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below.
+_Direction_+.--Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following groups of sentences:--
+_Example_+.--This man is to be pitied. He has no friends.
1. This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied.
2. This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends.
3. Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied.
4. This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied.
5. This man, having no friends, is to be pitied.
6. This man, without friends, is to be pitied.
7. This friendless man deserves our pity.
1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to its body.
2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile.
3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain.
They spread over the whole body.
4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to have been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of John Paust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz.
5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. This machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated.
This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. This machine is more wonderful.
You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by being combined. But young writers frequently use too many _ands_ and other connectives, and make their sentences too long.
Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of the parts are not clear.
As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to make _paragraphs_.
A +_paragraph_+ is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing one point or one division of a general subject.
The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines.
+_Direction_+.--Combine the following statements into sentences and paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:--
Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It covers about three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It takes the form of snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. The little particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night the gra.s.s and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air touches the gra.s.s and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves and roots. Water is a great purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a great worker. It floats vessels. It turns the wheels of mills. It is converted into steam. It is harnessed to mighty engines. It does the work of thousands of men and horses.
+_To the Teacher_+.--Condensed statements of facts, taken from some book not in the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs.
LETTER-WRITING.
In writing a letter there are six things to consider--the _Heading_, the _Introduction_, the _Body of the Letter_, the _Conclusion_, the _Folding_, and the _Superscription_.
THE HEADING.
+_Parts_+.--The Heading consists of the name of the +_Place_+ at which the letter is written, and the +_Date_+. If you write from a city, give the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, or any other well-known inst.i.tution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street. If you write from a village or other country place, give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state.
The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
+_How Written_+.--Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note--and a little to the left of the middle of the page. If the Heading is very short, it may stand on one line. If it occupies more than one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to the right than the second.
The Date stands upon a line by itself if the Heading occupies two or more lines.
The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures, the rest in words. Each important word begins with a capital letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period.
_Direction_.--Study what has been said, and write the following headings according to these models:---
1. Hull, Ma.s.s., Nov. 1, 1860.
2. 1466 Colorado Ave., Rochester, N. Y., Apr. 3, 1870.
3. Newburyport, Ma.s.s., June 30, 1826.
4. Starkville, Herkimer Co., N. Y., Dec. 19, 1871.
1. n y rondout 11 1849 oct. 2. staten island port richmond 1877 25 january.
3. brooklyn march 1871 mansion house 29. 4. executive chamber vt february montpelier 1869 27. 5. washington franklin como nov 16 1874. 6. fifth ave may new york 460 9 1863. 7. washington d c march 1847 520 pennsylvania ave 16.
THE INTRODUCTION.
_+Parts+_.--The Introduction consists of the _+Address+_--the Name, the t.i.tle, and the Place of Business or the Residence of the one addressed--and the _+Salutation+_. t.i.tles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. Prefix _Mr._ (plural, _Messrs_.) to a man"s name; _Master_ to a boy"s name; _Miss_ to the name of a girl or an unmarried lady; _Mrs._ to the name of a married lady. Prefix _Dr_. to the name of a physician, or write _M.D._ after his name. Prefix _Rev_. (or _The Rev_.) to the name of a clergyman; if he is a Doctor of Divinity, prefix _Rev. Dr_., or write _Rev_. before his name and _D.D._ after it; if you do not know his Christian name, prefix _Rev. Mr._ or _Rev. Dr._ to his surname, but never _Rev_. alone. _Esq._ is added to the name of a lawyer, and to the names of other prominent men. Avoid such combinations as the following: _Mr. John Smith, Esq., Dr. John Smith, M.D., Mr. John Smith, M.D._, etc.
Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer"s degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, Miss Brown_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, etc.; friends as _My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Mr. Brown_, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen_, etc.
_+How Written+_.--The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next line, or the next but one, and standing on the left side of the page; or it may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the Conclusion. If the letter is written to a very intimate friend, the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in other letters, especially those on ordinary business, it should be placed at the top and as directed above. There should always be a narrow margin on the left-hand side of the page, and the Address should always begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the right, as in the Heading.
Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it, when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to the right than the second line of the Address begins, when this occupies two lines; a little to the right of the marginal lime, when the Address occupies one line; on the marginal line, when the Address stands below.
Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All the items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should be followed by a comma.
_+Direction+_.--Study what has been said, and write the following introductions according to these models:--
1. Dear Father, I write, etc.
2. The Rev. M. H. Buckham, D.D., President of U. V. M., Burlington, Vt.
My dear Sir,
3. Messrs. Clark & Brown, Quogue, N. Y.
Gentlemen,
4. Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 2 Milk St., Boston.
Dear Sirs,
1. david h cochran lld president of polytechnic inst.i.tute brooklyn my dear sir. 2. dr John h hobart burge 64 livingston st brooklyn n y sir. 3. prof geo n boardman Chicago ill dear teacher. 4. to the president executive mansion Washington d c mr president. 5. rev t k beecher elmira n y sir. 6.
messrs gilbert & sons gentlemen ma.s.s boston. 7. mr george r curtis minn rochester my friend dear. 8. to the honorable wm m evarts secretary of state Washington d c sir.
THE BODY OF THE LETTER.
+_The Beginning_+.--Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the Salutation, and on the _same_ line, if the Introduction consists of four lines--in which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash;--otherwise, on the line _below_.