MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
LESSON 112.
+Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply changing its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections, or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words are not now marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, the meaning, and the use of the parts of speech we call their +Modifications+.
[Footnote: Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode, etc.--what we here call _Modifications_--to form, find themselves within bounds which they continually overleap. They define number, for instance, as a form, or inflection, and yet speak of nouns "plural in form but singular in sense," or "singular in form but plural in sense;" that is, if you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form but singular or plural form in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insist that nouns have three cases, though only two forms; and speak of the nominative and the objective case of the noun, "although in fact the two cases are always the same in form"--the two forms always the same in form!
On the other hand, those that make what we call _Modifications_ denote only relations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For instance, they ask the pupil to "p.r.o.nounce and write the possessive of nouns," hardly expecting, we suppose, that the "condition" of a noun will be sounded or written; and they speak of "a noun in the singular with a plural application," in which expression _singular_ must be taken to mean _singular form_ to save it from sheer nonsense.
We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do what by the common use of the word we are allowed; viz., to take _Modifications_ with such breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use, as well as to form. Primarily, of course, it meant inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words. But we shall use _Modifications_ to indicate changes in meaning and use when the form in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizing that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form.]
Modifications of Nouns and p.r.o.nouns.
NUMBER.
_The boy shouts_. _The boys shout_. The form of the subject _boy_ is changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes one lad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning of nouns is called +Number+; the word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the +Singular Number+; and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the +Plural Number+. Number expresses only the distinction of one from more than one; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, and say _two boys_, _four boys_, _many_ or _several boys_.
+DEFINITIONS+.
+_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, and use+.
+_Number_ is that modification of a noun or p.r.o.noun which denotes one thing or more than one.+
+The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+.
+The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+.
NUMBER FORMS.
+RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the singular+.
To this rule there are some exceptions.
When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of _s_, _es_ is added and forms another syllable.[Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _as_ was the plural termination for a certain cla.s.s of nouns. In later English, _as_ was changed to _es_, which became the regular plural ending; as, _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. In modern English, _e_ is dropped, and _s_ is joined to the singular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends in an _s_-sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, as two hissing sounds will not unite.]
+Remark+.--Such words as _horse_, _niche_, and _cage_ drop the final _e_ when _es_ is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 137.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of +s+_:--
Ax _or_ axe, arch, adz _or_ adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, gla.s.s, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz.
The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_ without increase of syllables.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico (_oes_ or _os_), potato, tornado, torpedo, veto, volcano.
The following nouns in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _s_ only.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Canto, domino (_os_ or _oes_), duodecimo, halo, junto, la.s.so, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (_os_ or _oes_).
Nouns in _o_ preceded by a vowel add _s_.
Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio.
Common nouns [Footnote: See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English, such words as _lady_ and _fancy_ were spelled _ladie_, _fancie_. The modern plural simply retains the old spelling and adds _s_,] in _y_ after a consonant change _y_ into _i_ and add _es_ without increase of syllables. Nouns in _y_ after a vowel add _s_.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, [Footnote: _U_ after _q_ is a consonant] daisy, essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity.
The following nouns change _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, [Footnote: _Staff_ (a stick or support), _staves_ or _staffs_; _staff_ (a body of officers), _staffs_. The compounds of _staff_ are regular; as, _flagstaffs_.] thief, wharf, [Footnote: In England, generally _wharfs_.]
wife, wolf.
The following nouns in _f_ and _fe_ are regular.
+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--
Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif.
(Nouns in _ff_, except _staff_, are regular; as, _cuff_, _cuffs_.)
The following plurals are still more irregular.
+Direction+.--_Learn to form the following plurals_:--
Child, children; foot, feet; goose, geese; louse, lice; man, men; mouse, mice; Mr., Messrs.; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; woman, women.
(For the plurals of p.r.o.nouns, see Lesson 124.)
LESSON 113.
NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED.
Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain their original plural forms. Some of these take the English plural also.
+Direction+.--_Learn to form the following plurals_:--