Zagorski and E. Rastawiecki, and above all by count E. Raczynski.[77]
The patriotic exertions of this n.o.bleman, who has caused many a valuable old ma.n.u.script to be printed; and who has never seemed to be afraid of any sacrifice, when the promotion of science and literature is concerned; deserve the highest praise, and ought to serve as a model to others of n.o.ble name.
Church history also, a department hitherto entirely neglected, in Poland, has begun to receive some small degree of attention in the present period. Joseph Lukascewicz wrote a history of the Bohemian Congregations in Poland,[78] in 1835; and in 1846 a history of the Helvetian (Calvinistic) Confession in Lithuania. Count Valerian Krasinski, who found a home in England, has likewise published a history of the Reformation in Poland, in the English language.[79]
The history of recent times cannot be expected to be written in Poland; where the pen is chained, even if the mind keeps itself unfettered. The republic of Cracow, until about ten years ago, enjoyed a certain degree of liberty. It could have become the asylum of Polish literature and science; but it became only too soon the battlefield of political pa.s.sions and combats. Some of her scholars however kept themselves entirely aloof from the strife. Macherzinski"s and Muczkowski"s learned works, already mentioned above; a history of Polish Literature by Wisznewski; and a new Polish Dictionary, by Trajanski; were the immediate results.
New works of travels have been written by Kraszewski and Holawinski; the former describing the South of Russia, and the latter his pilgrimage to the Holy Land; both were published in 1845. A book of travels on Siberia, a land so seldom chosen for a tour of pleasure, had preceded them.[80]
Modern history, we have said, cannot be expected to be written in Poland. This remark leads us at once to the literature of Polish Emigrants, as it is generally called, which has sprung up in Paris.
Since the revolution of 1830, this capital has been the princ.i.p.al seat of Polish literary activity. One of the first works of importance published there was Maurice Mochnacki"s History of the Polish insurrection; which excited among his own countrymen a new and pa.s.sionate feud. Mochnacki"s name had been favourably known as the author of a work on the Polish literature of the nineteenth century;[81] and as the able editor of several periodicals. His political misfortunes, however, and especially the circ.u.mstance that he had been compelled to appear alternately as the tool of the grand duke Constantine, and as the victim of his hatred, made him a subject of distrust to his countrymen, although he had fought with bravery in the revolution. He died in France when not yet thirty years old. His scattered writings were published in 1836 by A. Jelowicki, one of the patriotic family of that name; who had been deeply implicated in the revolution, and lived as fugitives in Paris. A printing office, which they have founded there, serves for the publication of Polish works.
Another work on the recent events was written by Wratnowski, who published a history of the insurrection in Volhynia, Paris. 1837. An animated picture of the time, which appeared three years ago under the t.i.tle, "Representation of the national spirit in Poland." by Ojczyczniak,[82] exhibits strong pa.s.sions in the author; a glowing and certainly not unnatural hatred against the great powers; but a still more violent one against his _democratic_ countrymen, to whom he imputes the perdition of the good cause. A history of the Polish insurrection, published by S.B. Gnorowski in the English language.
Lond. 1839, is written in the same violent and prejudiced spirit.
The Slavic press in Paris has been especially productive in periodicals; all of them replete with pa.s.sion and hatred against their oppressors; some of them conducted not without talent. The _Revue Slave_, the _Mlada Polska_, (young Poland), the _Cronika, Emigracyi Polskiej_ (Polish Emigrant"s Chronicle), and the _Polish Vademec.u.m_ edited by N.U. Hoffmann, may be named here. From the latter we learn, that, from 1831 to 1837 among the Polish emigrants in France, _nine_ died in duels and _fourteen_ by suicide.
Joachim Lelewel, whose _literary_ activity belongs rather to the preceding period, while that now under consideration was partly the result of his _political_ career, lives still at Brussels, where he has recently published (1849) a work on the civil rights of the Polish peasantry. He attempts to demonstrate, that the oppression and the debased condition of this cla.s.s came upon them along with the introduction of Christianity; and represents the Romish clergy, whose advantage it was to keep up this state of things, as the princ.i.p.al enemies of the peasantry. Lelewel"s writings have wielded a more decided influence in Poland than those of any other modern author. The tendency of all his historical investigations, even when apparently without any such design, has been since the very beginning of the Russian dominion to undermine their power; and the great ability with which he contrived to veil hints, to disguise remarks, and to follow out under a harmless mask a certain and fixed purpose, had earned him twenty or thirty years ago the name of the "Jesuit of history."
It remains now to give a general survey of the progress of Polish _belles-lettres_ during the last twenty years; and also of those mixed publications which excite a general interest. Here we must not omit to mention Witwicki"s the "Evening Hours of a Pilgrim," [83] a book which, in a sprightly style and a peculiarly interesting way, gives a good deal of information as to the literary and mental condition of Poland, and the much-lauded revival of letters during the reign of Stanislaus Poniatowski.
But perhaps the most interesting production of this period is Adam Mickiewicz"s course of Lectures on Slavic literature and the condition of the Slavic nations, delivered in French at Paris, where he had found employment as a professor in the College de France.[84] The deep enthusiasm which pervades these lectures, the mental excitement by which they would seem to have been dictated from beginning to end, forbid us to consider them in the ordinary light of a mere course of instruction on the subject to which they relate. But there is no other work more full of ideas, or richer in thought; it is the reasoning of a poet, and a poet"s way of viewing the world. The one great principle of these lectures again is _Panslavism_,--Panslavism spiritualized and idealized; and therefore in a shape which can inspire little fear to others in respect to their own nationality, although it can never excite their sympathies. Mickiewicz still idolizes Napoleon, and prophesies a revolution of the world; a new revolution, a torch to illumine the world; he himself is "a spark, fallen from that torch;" his mission is to prophesy to the world the coming events "as a living witness of the new revelation," Although these prophecies are not strictly political, we can see plainly, that in the expectation of the prophet this new revolution will consist in "the union of the _force_ of Slavic genius, with the _knowledge_ of the West" (France); by which of course the intermediate Teutonic principle must be crushed.
In purely poetical creations, this great poet shows his full power. In a beautiful tale, _Pan Tadeusz_, "Sir Thaddeus," (Paris 1834,) which, though in verse, may be considered as a novel, he very graphically described the civil and domestic life existing in Lithuania immediately before the war of 1812; and gave also further evidence of his genius by several smaller poems. He is, however, not very productive; a striking peculiarity of Slavic poets.
The princ.i.p.al poets of the modern romantic school in Poland, of which Mickiewicz must be considered the founder, are the following:
A.E. Odyniec and Julian Korssak, both chiefly known by happy translations from the English; but also not without creative power of their own. Anton Malczeski is the author of a poetical tale, _Maria_,[85] perhaps the most popular production of the Polish literature. It is a touching family legend, traditional in the n.o.ble house of Potocki in Volhynia; but transposed by Malczeski to the Ukraine, and connected in that way with graphic descriptions of this latter country. Malczeski lived a life of wild adventures; and died young, not yet 34 years old, in 1826.
The Ukraine appears to be, on the whole, one of the favourite theatres for the romantic school of Polish poets. Zaleski, Gosczynski, Grabowski, all of them poets of more than ordinary talents, give us pictures of this country, alternately sweet and rough, wild and romantic. There must necessarily be some mixture of attractive and repulsive elements here even for native poets; for the common people are Russians, and hate the Polish n.o.bility as their oppressors.
Nevertheless Thomas Padura, another of the young Polish school, chose even the dialect of the Ruthenian peasantry for his songs. Another Polish poet, who has selected the Ukraine for the theatre of most of his tales, is Michael Czaykowski; he too is considered as standing at the head of the novel writers of his country. His legends of the Kozaks[86], his tales, _Wernyhora_[87], _Kirdzali_, the Hetman of the Ukraine[88], etc. manifest a more than common talent.
To the poetical literature of the Polish emigrants belong further the works of A. Gorecki, Garczinski, J. Slawacki, but, above all, of count Ignatius Krasinski; not the same individual who wrote a history of the Reformation in Poland in the English language[89]. He is by many of his countrymen considered as their greatest living poet. Most of his productions are enveloped in a certain mystical atmosphere, which renders a commentary necessary in order to understand them. Two dramatic poems, one called, in contrast to Dante, "The Undivine Comedy;" the other, "Irydion," an ill.u.s.tration of Schiller"s stern apothegm, that "the history of the world is the judgment of the world;" [90] are regarded as his most powerful productions[91].
Meanwhile this department of literature, in Poland itself, has taken, in some of its branches, the same strictly national direction which characterizes the Russian and Bohemian tendencies of modern times.
Many of the publications, which are reckoned under belles-lettres, are nothing better than drawing-room productions, so called, meant to satisfy the immediate wants of the reading world. Count Skarbek, J.
Krascewski, F. Barnatowicz (ob. 1838), K. Korwell, Szabranski, and others, are popular novel writers. Among the poets we mention the same Szabranski, Nowasielski, Zialinski, Alex. Groza, Burski, and, above all, Lucian Siemienski and A. Bielowski. The latter, along with Kamienski, is the translator of Schiller. Count Vinzent Kicinski translated Victor Hugo; and Holawinski, Shakspeare. As successful dramatic writers are named, the counts Fredro, Korzeniowski, St.
Jaozowski, etc.
Of an entirely national character are all the productions of Wladislas Woicicki, who devoted his life princ.i.p.ally to the study of the antiquities of his country and its language. In 1838 he published an interesting collection of old Polish proverbs[92]; several historical tales, scattered in Annuals; a greater work, ent.i.tled "Domestic Sketches:" and another on Polish Woman;[93] all of them ill.u.s.trations of Polish life and manners at certain times, and resting on an historical foundation. A rich collection of traditions and popular legends was published by the same scholar in 1839.[94] This important national feature has at last excited some attention among the Polish scholars. In 1838 a collection of the songs of the people in the country adjacent to the Bug was published.[95] Another appeared in the same year, prepared by the poets Siemienski and Bielowski (Prague 1838), with the t.i.tle _Dumki_, i.e. Elegies,[96] being Polish translations of Malo-Russian popular songs. The great and simple beauty of this poetry of the Kozaks surprised the literary world. But Woicicki and Zegota Pauli were the first who gave their attention to the really Polish Lekhian popular songs, i.e. songs of the peasantry in Masavia and Podlachia, the grand duchy of Posen, the territory of Cracow, etc. of which, until then, the existence was hardly known.[97]
It would almost seem as if the Russian government, in placing all the evidences of the mental activity of its Polish subjects under its strictest guardianship, was ready to supply also the supposed want of popular poetry. There was recently published at Warsaw a collection of ballads, sixty-nine in number, devoted to the praise of all the sovereigns of Russia, from Rurik to Alexander. These ballads are in the popular tone, and were sold cheap.[98] What degree of popularity they may have obtained, we are unable to say.[99]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: On the origin of these tribes, which seem to have been kindred nations with the ancient Livonians, Esthonians, and Borussians, many hypotheses have been started, but the truth has not yet been sufficiently ascertained. It seems evident to us, that they are not of Slavic origin; although this has been maintained by many historians, who were misled by local circ.u.mstances. Even Schaffarik in his Antiquities regards them as originally a Slavic race. See Parrot"s _Versuch einer Entwickelung der Sprache, Abstammung, etc. der Liven, Letten, etc_. The Foreign Quarterly Review contains an interesting essay on Lettish popular poetry, Vol. VIII. p. 61.]
[Footnote 2: Kopitar, in his review of Schaffarik"s _Geschichte_, declares this etymological derivation to be a mistake; without however giving any other explanation of the name Lekh. _Wiener Jahrbucher_, Vol. x.x.xVII. 1827. According to Schaffarik in his Slav. Antiquities, _Lekh_, like _Czekh_, means a leader, a high officer.]
[Footnote 3: See pp. 36, 43.]
[Footnote 4: See Bentkowski"s _Hist. literatury Polsk_. Warsaw 1814.]
[Footnote 5: The statistical information respecting the Russian-Polish provinces is very imperfect, and contains the most striking contradictions. Benken gives the number of inhabitants at four millions; Wichmann in 1813, at 6,380,000; a.r.s.enjef at seven millions.
According to Bromsen"s _Russland und das russische Reich,_ Berl. 1819, there are not more than 850,000 Poles among them, nearly all n.o.blemen; the lower cla.s.ses are Russniaks and Lithuanians. In our statement of the number of Poles in these provinces, we have followed Schaffarik.]
[Footnote 6: See above, p. 51; also, pp. 59, 60, n. 17.]
[Footnote 7: These statements seem to disagree with those of Ha.s.sel, which rest on the authority of the returns of 1820. He states that Austrian Poland has 4,226,969 inhabitants; Prussian Poland, 2,584,124.
The population of the former consists however of a large proportion of Russniaks, and more especially of Jews; the latter has a similar proportion of German inhabitants.]
[Footnote 8: Other private estimates make them not more than seven millions.]
[Footnote 9: We doubt whether any but Slavic organs would be able to p.r.o.nounce the name of the place, to which the college of Zamose was removed. It is written _Szczebrzeszyn_.]
[Footnote 10: Zaluski and Minasovrez wrote verses with _counted_ not _measured_ syllables, without rhyme; Przybylski"s and Staszye"s translations of Homer are in hexameters. That rhyme is not natural to the Polish language, is evident from the ancient popular poetry of the other Slavic nations; which are all without rhyme. The author of the work _Volkslieder der Polen_, a.s.sumes the absence of rhyme in some of them as a proof of their antiquity. Of Slavic popular songs only those of the Malo-Russians or Ruthenians are rhymed; and none of these lay claim to great antiquity.]
[Footnote 11: This song, called _Boga Rodzica_, can be named a war-song, only because the Poles used to sing it when advancing to battle. It is rather a prayer to the Virgin, ending with a sixfold Amen. In a poetical respect it has no value. It is printed in Bowring"s _Specimens of the Polish Poets_, p. 12; together with the music, copied from a ma.n.u.script which is said to be from the twelfth century. No translation is added. It is remarkable that this hymn is still sung, or at least was so in the year 1812, in the churches of the places where St. Adalbert lived and died, viz. at Kola and Gnesen.
Niemcewicz, who published it, states that he himself heard it at that time at the latter place.]
[Footnote 12: See Schaffarik"s _Geschichte der Slav. Sprache_, p.
421.]
[Footnote 13: A History of the University of Cracow was recently published by Prof. Muczkowski, under the modest t.i.tle: _Mieszkania i postepowanie, etc_. i.e. "On the dwellings and the conduct of the Students of the University of Cracow in former centuries," Cracow 1842. Vol. I. The work was planned for _ten_ volumes.]
[Footnote 14: _Aelteste Denkmaler der Polnischen Sprache_, Wien 1838.]
[Footnote 15: Dobrovsky"s _Slovanka_, Vol. II. p. 237.]
[Footnote 16: His _Chronicon Polonorum_ was reprinted at Warsaw in 1824; together with Vincent Kadlubeck"s _Res gestae principum ac regum Poloniae_.]
[Footnote 17: Among these sects were the Unitarians, called also Anti-trinitarians, modern Arians, and afterwards Socinians. They called themselves Polish Brethren. Their princ.i.p.al school and printing office was at Racow; several of their teachers were distinguished for learning, their communities were wealthy and flourishing, and not a few of the highest families of Poland belonged to them. The doctrines of the two exiled Italians, Lelio and Fausto Socini, uncle and nephew, found among them only a conditional approbation; most of them were unwilling to receive Fausto, who developed his views more openly than his uncle, into their community. Internal dissensions were the result, and the establishment of new and smaller congregations. A disturbance among the Students at Racow in 1638, gave to the Catholics and to the other Protestants a welcome pretext for persecuting them; in 1658 their denomination was ultimately suppressed, and the choice left to them between the adoption of the Roman Catholic religion or exile within three years. A part of them emigrated to Germany, where they were soon merged in other Protestant denominations; others went to Transylvania, where the Unitarians, about fifty thousand in number, belonged and still belong to the denominations acknowledged by the state, and enjoy all civil rights. They have two high schools, at Klausenburg and at Th.o.a.rda; but are far from being distinguished for learning. See Meusel"s _Staatengeschicte_, p. 555. Lubienieci _Historia Reformationis Polanicae_, etc. etc.]
[Footnote 18: An enumeration of the Polish versions of the Bible may be acceptable to the reader. The New Testament was first translated by the Lutheran Seklucyan, who was a Greek scholar, and printed at Konigsberg 1551, three times reprinted before 1555. Afterwards for Catholics by Leonard, from the Vulgate, reviewed by Leopolita, Cracow 1556. Of the Old Testament, the Psalter alone was several times translated and repeatedly printed. The whole Bible was first translated for the Catholics by Leonard, from the Vulgate, and reviewed by Leopolita, Cracow 1561, reprinted in 1575 and 1577. Two years later by an anonymous translator from the original languages, for Calvinists, Brzesc 1563. Again from the original languages by Budny, an Unitarian clergyman, 1570, reprinted in 1572. From the Vulgate by the Jesuit Wuiek, Cracow 1599, reprinted at Breslau in 1740 in 8vo, and 1771 in 4to, with the Latin text. From the original languages by Paliurus, Wengiersciua, and Micolaievius, for Calvimsts, Dantzic 1632, the first Bible in 8vo, all the former being in fol. or 4to; reprinted at Amsterdam 1660, at Halle 1726, at Konigsberg 1738, 1779, and at Berlin 1810, by the Bibie Society. See Ringeltaube"s _Nachricht von den polnischen Bibeln_, Danz. 1744. Bentkowski"s _Hist, liter. Pol._ Vol. II. p. 494. _Slovanka_ Vol. I. p. 141. Vol. II. p.
228. Schaffarik"s _Geschichte der Slav. Spr_. p. 424.]
[Footnote 19: The Polish senate was not a body, the members of which were elected for a certain term; as those not acquainted with the Polish const.i.tution might be disposed to believe. It was composed of all the archbishops and bishops, the waiwodes and castellans, i.e. the t.i.tled n.o.bility, and the princ.i.p.al ministers of the king. It was thus in some measure the organ of the government and of the clergy, in opposition to the national representatives or the ma.s.s of the n.o.bility. This body was not established until towards the close of the fifteenth century. Before 1466-70, every n.o.bleman who chose, made his personal appearance in the senate at the summons of the king; but Casimir, the son of Jagello, in his frequent want of money and men, repeated these summons so often, that the n.o.bility found personal appearance inconvenient, and selected in their provincial conventions _nuntii_, to represent the nation, or rather the n.o.bility; without however giving up the right of personal attendance. The _nuntii_, whose number was not fixed, were bound to appear, had the right to grant or to refuse duties, and to act as the advisers of the king. In 1505 the law was pa.s.sed, that without their consent the const.i.tution could not be changed. At the diet in A.D. 1652 it occurred for the first time, that a single _nuntius_ opposed and annulled by his _liberum veto_ the united resolutions of the whole convention. On this example a regular right was very soon founded and acknowledged.
Deputies of cities were occasionally invited to the diet, but only in extraordinary cases.]
[Footnote 20: Preface to Vuk"s Servian Grammar, p. xxiii.]
[Footnote 21: See Schaffarik, _Geschichte_, p. 414, Bautkie"s _Geschichte der Krakauer Buchdruckereyen_.]
[Footnote 22: It was afterwards reinstated in the form of a large gymnasium by one of chancellor Zamoyski"s descendants, and removed to Szczebrzeszyn. See Letter on Poland, Edinb. 1823, p. 95.]
[Footnote 23: See Schaffarik, _Geschichte_, p. 426.]
[Footnote 24: Whether Copernicus is to be called a Pole or a German has been and is still a matter of dispute, and has been managed on the side of the Poles with the utmost bitterness and pa.s.sion. The Poles have recently given expression to their claim upon him by erecting to him a monument at Cracow, and celebrating the third centennial anniversary of the completion of his system of the world, which took place in A.D. 1530. Let the question respecting Copernicus be decided as it may, Poland may doubtless lay claim to many other eminent natural philosophers as her sons; e.g. Vitellio-Ciolek, who was the first in Europe to investigate the theory of light, in the beginning of the thirteenth century; Brudzewski, the teacher of Copernicus; Martinus of Olkusz, the proper author of the new or Gregorian calendar, which was introduced sixty-four years after him, etc.]