[5] Keller, /Johann von Staupitz und die Anfange der Reformation/, 1888.
[6] Grisar, op. cit. (Eng. Trans.), i., 34, 323.
[7] Id. i., 34, Bd. iii., 957-8.
[8] Paulus, /Johann Tetzel, der Abla.s.sprediger/, 1899. /Die Deutschen Dominikaner im Kampfe gegen Luther/, 1903.
[9] Grisar, op. cit. (Eng. Trans.), i., pp. 341-55.
[10] Kidd, /Doc.u.ments of the Continental Reformation/, pp. 20-6.
[11] Specially, Nos. 43, 45, 59, 86.
[12] /Dialogus ... in presumptuosas M. Lutheri conclusiones de potestate Papae./
[13] Greving, /Johann Eck/, etc., 1906.
[14] "/Beatissime Pater, prostratum me pedibus tuae beat.i.tudinis offero c.u.m omnibus quae sum et habeo. Vivifica, occide, voca, revoca, approba, reproba, ut placuerit. Vocem tuam vocem Christi in te praesidentis et loquentis agnoscam. Si mortem merui, mori non recusabo./"
[15] Pastor, op. cit., iv., 177-9.
[16] Creutzberg, /Karl von Milt.i.tz/, 1907.
[17] "/Coram Deo et tota creatura sua testor, me neque voluisse neque hodie velle Ecclesiae Romanae ac Beat.i.tudinis Tuae potestem ullo modo tangere aut quacunque versutia demoliri; quin plenissime confiteor huius ecclesiae potestatem esse super omnia, nec ei praeferendum quidquid sive in coelo sive in terra praeter unum Jesum Christum Dominum omnium/" (3rd March, 1519). Kidd, op. cit., p. 43.
[18] Grisar, op. cit. (Eng. Trans.), i., 359.
[19] /Cambridge Modern History/, ii., chaps. ii., iii.
[20] /Imperatorum nationis Germanicae gravamina ad Sadem Romanam/, 1725.
[21] De Weldige-Kremer, /De Joannis Cochlaei Vita et Scriptis/, 1865.
He was one of the most energetic opponents of the Reformation party.
[22] Schwane, /Dogmengeschichte der neuren zeit/, 1890, pp. 131-51, 210-240, 251-92.
[23] Grisar, op. cit., Bd. iii., 228.
[24] /De Libero Arbitrio/, etc., 1524.
[25] Grisar, op. cit., Bd. i., pp. 483-502.
[26] Raynaldus, /Ann. Eccl./ (ann. 1522).
[27] Pastor, op. cit., Bd. iv., pp. 212-393.
[28] "Of such slender dimensions was the original Protestant Church; small as it was, it was only held together by the negative character of its protest."--/Camb. Mod. Hist./, ii., p. 205.
[29] Negwer, /Wimpina/, 1909.
[30] Hergenrother-Kirsch, op. cit., Bd. iii., p. 80.
[31] Pastor, op. cit., Bd. iv., 473-5.
[32] Hergenrother-Kirsch, op. cit., iii., pp. 102-8.
[33] For Luther"s own views on the results of his preaching, cf.
Dollinger, /Die Reformation/, Bd. ii., pp. 426-52.
[34] Grisar, op. cit., Bd. ii., 382-436.
[35] Grisar, op. cit., Bd. iii., 211-30.
[36] That there can be no question of suicide is admitted (Paulus /Luthers Lebensende/, 1898).
[37] /Tischreden/ (/Table Talk/), cf. Grisar, ii., 178 sqq. Smith, /Luther"s Table Talk/, 1907. /Am. Ecc. Review/ (1906, pp. 1-18).
[38] /Personal Character of Luther/ (/Ir. Theol. Quart./, viii., p.
77-85).
(b) Zwingli in Switzerland: His att.i.tude towards Lutheranism.
See works mentioned above (II. a). Dandliker, /Geschichte der Schweiz/, 3 Bde, 1904. Dandliker-Salisbury, /A Short History of Switzerland/, 1899. De Haller, /Histoire de la revolution religieuse ou de la reforme protestante dans la Suisse occidentale/, 1837. Gelpke, /Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz/, 1856- 61. Schuler-Schulthess, /Opera Huldrici Zwinglii/, 8 vols., 1828- 42. Jackson, /Huldreich Zwingli/, 1901.
The territory now known as Switzerland formed portion of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1291, however, during the reign of Rudolph of Habsburg, the three states or cantons of Uri, Schweiz, and Unterwalden, formed a confederation to defend their rights and privileges, thus laying the foundation for the existence of Switzerland as an independent nation. Other cantons joined the alliance, more especially after the victory at Morgarten in 1315, when the Austrian forces despatched against the Swiss were almost annihilated. Austria made various attempts to win back the Swiss to their allegiance but without success, and in 1394 the independence of the allied cantons was practically recognised.
About the time of the Reformation in Germany Switzerland consisted of thirteen cantons and several smaller "allied" or "friendly" states not admitted to full cantonal rights. Though bound together by a loose kind of confederation for purposes of defence against aggression, the various states enjoyed a large measure of independence, and each was ruled according to its own peculiar const.i.tution. The Federal Diet or General a.s.sembly was composed of representatives appointed by the cantons, and its decisions were determined by the votes of the states, the largest and most populous possessing no greater powers than the least influential member of the confederation. Some of the states were nominally democratic in their form of government, but, as in most countries during this period, the peasants had many grounds for reasonable complaint, particularly in regard to taxation, treasury pensions, and the enlisting and employment of the Swiss mercenary troops, then the best soldiers in Europe.
As in Germany, many causes were at work to prepare the ground for the new religious teaching. On account of the free character of its inst.i.tutions refugees of all kinds fled to Switzerland for asylum, and were allowed great liberty in propagating their views. Again, the Swiss mercenaries, returning from their campaigns and service, during which they were brought into contact with various cla.s.ses and nations, served much the same purpose as does the modern newspaper. In both these ways the peasants of Switzerland were kept in touch with the social, political, and religious condition of the rest of Europe, and with the hopes and plans of their own cla.s.s in other kingdoms.
Humanism had not, indeed, made very striking progress in Switzerland, though the presence of Erasmus at Basle, and the attacks that he directed against the monks and the clergy, could not fail to produce some effect on a people whose minds were already prepared for such methods by their acquaintance with modern developments.
If, however, the Church in Switzerland had been free from abuses not all the wit and eloquence of Erasmus and his followers could have produced a revolt, but unfortunately, the influences that led to the downfall of religion in other countries were also at work in the Swiss cantons. The cathedral chapters were composed for the greater part of men who had no vocation to the priesthood, and who adopted the clerical profession because they wished to enrich themselves from the revenues of the Church, and were ensured of good positions through the influence of their relatives and patrons. Many of the clergy were far from being perfect, nor were all the religious inst.i.tutions mindful of the spirit or even of the letter of their const.i.tutions.
Unfortunately, too, owing to the peculiar political development of their country, the bishops of Switzerland were subject to foreign metropolitans, two of them being under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Mainz, two under Besancon, one under Aquileia, and one subject immediately to Rome. Partly for this reason, partly, also, owing to the increasing encroachments of the civil power, disputes and conflicts between the ecclesiastical and temporal jurisdictions were not unfrequent. But it would be a mistake to suppose that there were no good ecclesiastics in Switzerland at this time. There were many excellent priests, both secular and regular, who recognised the sad condition of affairs, and who supported measures such as those undertaken by the Bishop of Basle in 1503 with all their power. The great body of teachers known as the Friends of G.o.d were at work in Switzerland as in the Netherlands, and were doing splendid service for education, both secular and religious.
The man, who played in Switzerland the part played so successfully by Luther in Germany, was Ulrich Zwingli. He was the son of rich parents, born at Wildhaus, in the canton of Saint Gall (1484), educated at the Universities of Berne, Basle, and Vienna, and after his ordination to the priesthood, appointed to the parish of Glarus. He was a young man of remarkable ability both as a student and as a preacher, and was fortunate enough to attract the notice of a papal legate, through whose influence a pension was a.s.signed to him to enable him to prosecute his studies. He was a good cla.s.sical scholar with a more than average knowledge of Hebrew, and well versed in the Scriptures and in the writings of the Fathers. For a time he acted as chaplain to some Swiss regiments fighting in Italy for the Pope against France, and on his return to his native country he was appointed preacher at the famous shrine of Our Lady at Einsiedeln.[1] Here his oratorical powers stood him in good stead, but his judgment and level-headedness were not on the same high plane as his declamatory powers, nor was his own private life in keeping with the sanct.i.ty of the place or with the denunciations that he hurled so recklessly against his clerical brethren. He began to attack pilgrimages and devotions to the Blessed Virgin, but it was not so much for this as for his unlawful relations with a woman of bad character that he was relieved of his office.[2]
He retired to Zurich where he was appointed preacher in the cathedral.
Here he denounced the lives of the clergy and the abuses in the Church, relying, as he stated, upon what he had seen himself in Italy during his residence there as chaplain to the Swiss mercenaries. Like Luther, he well knew how to win the attention and sympathy of the mob by his appeals to the national feelings of his countrymen, and like Luther he insisted that the Scriptures were the sole rule of faith. He denounced in the strongest language the immorality and vices of the clergy, celibacy, vows of chast.i.ty, pilgrimages and the veneration of the saints, but for so far he had not broken entirely with the Church.
The preaching of the Indulgences promulgated by Leo X. in Constance was entrusted to the Franciscans. Their work was a difficult one especially as the Grand Council of Zurich forbade them to persist, as, indeed, did also the able and zealous Hugo von Hohenlandenberg, Bishop of Constance, in whose diocese Zurich was situated. Zwingli, confident of the support of the city authorities, attacked the doctrine of Indulgences and was backed by the Grand Council, which ordered, at his instigation, that the Word of G.o.d should be preached according to the Scriptures, regardless of tradition or the interpretation of the Church. Later on he directed his attacks against the meritoriousness of good works and the practice of fast and abstinence (1522), and about the same time he addressed a pet.i.tion to the Bishop of Constance demanding that he should not interfere with the preaching of the pure Word of G.o.d nor set any obstacle to the marriage of his priests. He admitted publicly that his relations with women had been disgraceful, that he had learned from his own personal experience how impossible of fulfilment was the vow of chast.i.ty, and that marriage was the only remedy that would enable him to overcome the emotions of carnal l.u.s.t referred to by St. Paul in his epistle to the Corinthians (I. 7, 9).
The bishop refused to yield to this demand insisting on the strict observance of celibacy, and appealed to the Grand Council to support him with the full weight of their authority (April 1522).
Incensed by this refusal Zwingli shook off the yoke of ecclesiastical authority, rejected the primacy of the Pope, and the infallibility of General Councils, denounced celibacy and vows of chast.i.ty as inventions of the devil, and called upon the Swiss people to support him in his fight for religious freedom. Once before, in 1520, Leo X.
had summoned Zwingli to Rome to answer for his teaching, but the summons had been unheeded. Adrian VI. made another attempt to win him from his dangerous course by a letter full of kindness and sympathy, but his remonstrance produced no effect (1523). The Grand Council of Zurich, hopeful of securing a preponderating influence in Switzerland by taking the lead in the new movement, favoured Zwingli. Instead of responding to the appeal of the Bishop of Constance it announced a great religious disputation to be held in January 1523, to which both Zwingli and his opponents were summoned for the explanation and defence of their views. Zwingli put forward sixty-seven theses, the princ.i.p.al of which were that the Bible is the sole rule of faith, that the Church is not a visible society but only an a.s.sembly of the elect, of which body Christ is the only true head, that consequently the jurisdiction of the Pope and of the bishops is a usurpation devoid of scriptural authority, that the Ma.s.s, Confession, Purgatory, and Intercession of the Saints are to be rejected as derogatory to the merits of Christ, and finally, that clerical celibacy and monastic vows, instead of being counsels of perfection, are only cloaks for sin and hypocrisy. The Bishop of Constance refused to take part in such a disputation. His vicar-general, Johann Faber of Constance, however, attended the meeting, not indeed to take part in the discussion but merely to protest against it as opposed to the authority of the Church and of the councils. As his protests were unheeded, he undertook to defend the doctrines attacked, but in the end the Grand Council declared that the victory rested with Zwingli.
Flushed with his triumph Zwingli now proceeded to put his theories into practice. Supported by a mob he endeavoured to prevent the celebration of Ma.s.s, religious processions, the use of pictures and statues, and the solemn ceremonial a.s.sociated with Extreme Unction and the Viatic.u.m. He compiled an introduction to the New Testament for the use of the clergy, called upon them to abandon their obligations of celibacy, and set them an example by taking as his wife a woman who had been for years his concubine. He and his followers, supported by the majority of the Grand Council, went through the city destroying altars, pictures, statues, organs, and confessionals, and erecting in place of the altars plain tables with a plate for bread and a vessel for wine. The Catholic members of the Grand Council were driven from their position, and Catholic worship forbidden in Zurich (1523-5).
The system of Zwingli was much more rationalistic and, in a certain sense, much more logical than that of Luther. Imbued with the principles of pantheistic mysticism, he maintained that G.o.d is in Himself all being, created as well as uncreated, and all activity.