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Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N.Y.
Count Von Waldersee escorted by officers of the allied armies between lines of U. S. troops toward the Sacred Gate, Peking.
During the following year came the Boxer Rebellion in which there were ma.s.sacres of Europeans and Americans. When the foreign legations were besieged in Peking, United States troops took part in the expedition which marched to their relief. Seizure of Chinese territory, as indemnity, might have followed, but Secretary Hay brought the influence of this country to bear in securing guarantees of the territorial integrity of China and equal trade rights in its ports.
Friendly relations between the Chinese Empire and the United States were still further strengthened by the liberal att.i.tude of our government relative to the indemnity growing out of the Boxer uprising. The total amount which China had obligated itself to pay the governments, societies, and private individuals was $333,000,000. Of this sum, $24,400,778 was allotted to the United States. As a mark of friendship for China, Congress upon the recommendation of President Roosevelt, 1907, cancelled the obligation of China to pay that part of the stipulated indemnity in excess of $11,655,492, or an amount adequate to cover the actual amount of the claims. This generous conduct prompted the Chinese government to devote the funds thus remitted to the sending of Chinese students to this country for their education. About one hundred of these students have entered our schools and colleges each year since 1907. American inst.i.tutions will, as a consequence, have a great influence on the progressive development of China.
For some time Russia had been extending her influence over the Chinese tributary province of Manchuria. In 1903 negotiations for a new commercial treaty were begun between China and the United States. There were numerous delays on account of an agreement relative to opening the Manchurian ports. For a time it seemed probable that the American demand that her trading rights should be restored in Manchuria would bring on serious complications with Russia. Upon the completion of the treaty, however, the request was renewed and China acquiesced by opening the ports of Mukden and Ta Tung Kao to the ships of all nations. At the same time Russia agreed that she would in no way oppose this action.
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Copyright 1901, by Underwood & Underwood.
American flag raised over battered remnants of South Gate immediately after city"s capture. Battle of Tien-Tsin, China.
At the outbreak of the war between j.a.pan and Russia, in 1904, Secretary Hay took another step toward maintaining the administrative ent.i.ty of the Chinese Empire. At the suggestion of Germany he addressed a note to the powers which had taken part in the treaty of Peking, asking them to pledge themselves to limit the area of the war; keep China from becoming involved, and use their best endeavors to prevent the violation of Chinese interests by either belligerent, provided China should maintain absolute neutrality. These proposals were agreed to by the signatory nations, and both Russia and j.a.pan promised to respect Chinese neutrality.
Meantime a new national spirit had been developing rapidly in China and a greater sensitiveness was manifest toward the treatment of Chinese outside the empire. The strict interpretation of the Chinese Exclusion act had caused many Chinese entering the ports of the United States unwarranted hardships. A crisis was reached in 1905.
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Arrival of Chinamen at Malone, N. Y., from Canada, accompanied by officials.
According to the rules adopted by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, neither the immigration acts nor the Chinese exclusion acts apply to a Chinese person born in the United States. Under the laws, all Chinese laborers, both skilled and unskilled, are prohibited from entering the United States, but this prohibition does not extend to merchants, teachers, students, and travellers who are to be granted all the rights, privileges, and exemptions accorded the citizens of any other nation. In spite of these rulings, Ju Toy, who claimed to have been born in the United States, was deported. Three Chinamen, with their sister, who had been studying in the English schools came to Boston. Notwithstanding they had a letter from Mr. Choate, former United States amba.s.sador to Great Britain, they were not allowed to land with other pa.s.sengers, and were otherwise humiliated by the formalities to which they were subjected. Men of influence throughout the Chinese Empire were aroused and a circular was issued, in May, 1905, which was widely disseminated in the chief cities, calling for agreement not to buy any more American goods. Newspapers urged students to leave schools where American teachers were employed or American text-books or supplies were used. At this juncture President Roosevelt was appealed to by the American members of the Chinese Educational a.s.sociation. Acting with his accustomed vigor, he issued instructions to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor to send a letter to all immigration officials, instructing them that "any discourtesy shown to Chinese persons by any officials of the Government will be the cause for immediate dismissal from the service." In his message to Congress he declared that it was Chinese laborers alone who are undesirable, and that other Chinamen--students, professional men, merchants--should be encouraged to come to the United States. "We have no right," he wrote, "to claim the open door in China unless we do equity to the Chinese."
CHAPTER V
INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION
[1903-1905]
Great progress was made during the nineteenth century toward the settlement of differences between nations through arbitration. The United States was a party to 50 out of the total number of 120 arbitration treaties. Questions settled in this manner, such as boundary, damages inflicted by war or civil disturbances and injuries to commerce, would formerly have led to war. Twenty of these cases have been between the United States and Great Britain, and a settlement was effected when, at times, it seemed as if war could not be averted.
The work of the Hague Peace Conference, which met May 18, 1899, const.i.tuted a fitting close to the efforts which were put forth during the century to bring about conciliation through arbitration. The conference a.s.sembled in response to an invitation issued by the Czar of Russia "on behalf of disarmament and the permanent peace of the world."
One hundred and ten delegates were present, representing twenty-six different powers of which the United States was one. The delegates were divided into three commissions, each having separate subjects for consideration.
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The House in the Woods, The Hague, Holland, where the first Peace Conference was held.
The first commission adopted unanimously the resolution that "the limitation of the military charges which so oppress the world is greatly to be desired," but agreed that this could not now be accomplished through an international compact.
In the second commission a revision of the Declaration of Brussels concerning the rules of war was made. It was agreed by the entire conference that a new convention for this purpose should be called, and that the protection offered by the Red Cross, as agreed upon in the Geneva convention, should also be extended to naval warfare.
The proposition expressing the desire that international conflicts might in the future be settled through arbitration was considered by the third commission. Said ex-President Harrison: "The greatest achievement of the Hague conference was the establishment of an absolutely impartial judicial tribunal." Some of the chief features of this permanent court of arbitration were as follows: (1) Each nation which agreed to the plan was to appoint, within three months, four persons of recognized competency in international law, who were to serve for six years as members of the International Court; (2) an International Bureau was established at The Hague for the purpose of carrying on all intercourse between the signatory powers relative to the meetings of the court and to serve also as the recording office, for the court; (3) nations in dispute may select from the list of names appointed as above, and submitted to them by the bureau, those persons whom they desire to act as arbitrators; (4) the meetings of the court are to be held at The Hague unless some other place is stipulated by the nations in the controversy.
The permanent International Court of Arbitration was declared to be organized and ready for operation by April, 1901. At that time there were seventy-two judges appointed by twenty-two of the signatory powers, It is readily seen that the advantages of such a court are that unprejudiced arbitrators are selected, rules of procedure are defined, and decisions rendered are more liable to be accepted in future cases and thus a code of law will be formed, So many cases have been submitted to this tribunal that it has been said that a government which will not now try arbitration before resorting to arms is no longer considered respectable. This court was convened for the first time May 18, 1901.
The first case coming before the tribunal--the Pious Fund Case--was presented by the United States and Mexico, September 15, 1902. Up to 1846 the Mexican government had paid annual interest on some property administered by it but belonging to the Catholic church. Part of it was situated in what is now California. After 1848, when this California estate came under United States jurisdiction, Mexico refused to pay that part of the church outside of Mexico its share. This difference between our Government and Mexico the Hague Tribunal took up.
Agreeably to chapter 3, t.i.tle 4, of the agreement, each party named two arbitrators, and the latter, acting together, an umpire. In case of an equality of votes a third power, designated by agreement of the parties, was to select the umpire. The arbitrators chosen were M. de Martens, of the Orthodox Greek church; Sir Edward Fry, an English Protestant; M.
a.s.ser, a Jew, and M. Savornin-Loman, a Dutch Protestant. Decision was reached within the prescribed thirty days and announced October 14, 1902. It favored the United States contention, giving its proportion of the Mexican payments to the Catholic church in California.
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President Castro of Venezuela.
A second case, involving issues of war and peace, arose from the action of Great Britain and Germany against Venezuela in the winter of 1902-1903. Subjects of these as well as of other powers had claims against Venezuela. That country was in financial straits and its creditors pressed. December 9, 1902, British and German war-ships sunk or seized some Venezuelan vessels; next day they landed marines at La Guayra, who took possession of the custom house; the 14th they bombarded and demolished a fort at Puerto Cabello. Through the good offices of the United States the matter of debts was referred to the Hague Tribunal.
The German claims were decided by two representatives of Germany and two of Venezuela, or, if they disagreed, by an umpire whom the United States selected. So with the other claims. The tribunal fixed the order in which Venezuela should pay the different countries, and the United States was charged with overseeing the payments, a percentage of Venezuelan customs receipts being reserved for that purpose.
In 1903 Andrew Carnegie donated $1,500,000 for the purpose of erecting a "palace of peace," the permanent head-quarters of this court. The deed of trust states: "The establishment of a permanent Court of Arbitration by the treaty of the 29th of July, 1899, is the most important step forward, of a world-wide humanitarian character, that has ever been taken by the joint powers, as it must ultimately banish war, and further, being of opinion that the cause of peace will greatly benefit by the erection of a court house and library for the permanent Court of Arbitration," etc.
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The new Peace Palace, The Hague, Holland.
The site of this building, which will be ready for occupancy in 1912, is near The Hague. Its exterior will resemble some of the old city walls to be seen in Holland. The various governments which were parties to the treaty have contributed materials for the completion of the interior and objects of art for decoration. The United States presented a large marble group of statuary called "Peace Through Justice."
Two notable congresses were held in the United States during the year 1904, for the purpose of promoting the peace of the world. The Inter-Parliamentary Union held a meeting, the twelfth in its history, in connection with the World"s Fair at St. Louis. This organization was founded at Paris in 1888 by thirty members of the French Chamber of Deputies and ten members of the British Parliament, for the purpose of promoting the cause of peace and arbitration. Scoffed at from the beginning, the Union continued to grow until it included parliamentary delegates from every European country having a const.i.tutional form of government.
The meeting of the Union at St. Louis was the first to be held in the United States, for this country took no part in the organization until 1903. Russia and Turkey, having no parliaments, are not represented in the meetings of the Union. It is a noteworthy fact however that the Czar sent an official representative to the meeting in 1896 and that it was due to his report of that meeting, more than to any other cause, that the Czar invited the nations to send representatives to The Hague in 1898.
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Russian and j.a.panese Peace Envoys in session at Portsmouth, N. H.
In the congress at St. Louis, representatives from the deliberative bodies of fifteen nations were present. Among these delegates were some of the well-known public men from Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands, the United States, and various other countries. They were practical men and not dreamers.
Two important resolutions resulted from the gathering. One of these called upon the powers to intervene and put an end to the war between Russia and j.a.pan. The other invited the President of the United States to call a second peace congress, similar to the Hague conference. The resolution, addressed to President Roosevelt, stated that there were a number of questions left unsettled from the first Hague conference and that new problems had arisen since that time which demanded readjustment, such as the use of wireless telegraphy in the time of war.
On October 3 of the same year an international peace congress was held in Boston. Numerous congresses of this nature have been held from time to time since the meeting of the first one in London in 1843. Since the year 1888, when a congress was held in Paris, an international peace congress has met each year with the exception of 1895, the year of the Boer war, and in 1898 and 1899, on account of the Spanish-American war.
The first of these congresses in America was held in conjunction with the Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 1893. There were in attendance at Boston distinguished statesmen, clergymen, scholars, and professional men, and a number of noted women, representing the many peace and arbitration societies in Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and numerous other countries.
On the Sunday before the opening of the congress, special services were held in many of the Boston churches and the peace movement was discussed by distinguished preachers from Europe and America. In the deliberative sessions, which were held in Faneuil Hall, the Old South Meeting House, and other places, the first session being opened by an address by Secretary of State John Hay, the following topics, among others, were discussed: the work and influence of the Hague Tribunal; the reduction of the armaments of the nations; education and the peace sentiment. But here, as in every previous congress, the two topics to receive primary consideration have been arbitration and disarmament. At all times there has been the urgent appeal to the nations to abandon the brutality and injustice of war and to adopt the humane and just methods of peace.
In response to the resolution adopted at St. Louis, President Roosevelt, on October 20, 1904, invited the nations which had taken part in the first Hague conference to another conference at the same place. But in his message to Congress of that year he defined very clearly his own position, condemning in no uncertain terms the thought of peace at any price. "There are kinds of peace," he said, "which are highly undesirable, which are in the long run as destructive as any war. The peace of tyrannous terror, the peace of craven weakness, the peace of injustice--all these should be shunned as we shun unrighteous war."
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Building where the second Peace Conference was held, The Hague, Holland.