VARIETIES OF STOPS.
We have already remarked that the quality of a stop depends on the shape and construction of the pipe. Some pipes are of wood, others of metal.
Some are rectangular, others circular. Some have parallel sides, others taper or expand towards the top. Some are open, others stopped.
The two main cla.s.ses into which organ pipes may be divided are:--(1.) _Flue_ pipes, in which the wind is directed against a lip, as in Fig.
138. (2.) _Reed_ pipes--that is, pipes used in combination with a simple device for admitting air into the bottom of the pipe in a series of gusts. Fig. 144 shows a _striking_ reed, such as is found in the ordinary motor horn. The elastic metal tongue when at rest stands a very short distance away from the orifice in the reed. When wind is blown through the reed the tongue is sucked against the reed, blocks the current, and springs away again. A _free_ reed has a tongue which vibrates in a slot without actually touching the sides. Harmonium and concertina reeds are of this type. In the organ the reed admits air to a pipe of the correct length to sympathize with the rate of the puffs of air which the reed pa.s.ses. Reed pipes expand towards the top.
TUNING PIPES AND REEDS.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 144.--A reed pipe.]
Pipes are tuned by adjusting their length. The plug at the top of a stopped pipe is pulled out or pushed in a trifle to flatten or sharpen the note respectively. An open pipe, if large, has a tongue cut in the side at the top, which can be pressed inwards or outwards for the purpose of correcting the tone. Small metal pipes are flattened by contracting the tops inwards with a metal cone like a candle-extinguisher placed over the top and tapped; and sharpened by having the top splayed by a cone pushed in point downwards. Reeds of the striking variety (see Fig. 144) have a tuning-wire pressing on the tongue near the fixed end. The end of this wire projects through the casing. By moving it, the length of the vibrating part of the tongue is adjusted to correctness.
BELLOWS.
Different stops require different wind-pressures, ranging from 1/10 lb.
to 1 lb. to the square inch, the reeds taking the heaviest pressures.
There must therefore be as many sets of bellows and wind-chests as there are different pressures wanted. A very large organ consumes immense quant.i.ties of air when all the stops are out, and the pumping has to be done by a powerful gas, water, or electric engine. Every bellows has a reservoir (see Fig. 143) above it. The top of this is weighted to give the pressure required. A valve in the top opens automatically as soon as the reservoir has expanded to a certain fixed limit, so that there is no possibility of bursting the leather sides.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 145.--The keyboard and part of the pneumatic mechanism of the Hereford Cathedral organ. C, composition pedals for pushing out groups of stops; P (at bottom), pedals; P P (at top), pipes carrying compressed air; M, manuals (4); S S, stops.]
ELECTRIC AND PNEUMATIC ACTIONS.
We have mentioned in connection with railway signalling that the signalman is sometimes relieved of the hard manual labour of moving signals and points by the employment of electric and pneumatic auxiliaries. The same is true of organs and organists. The touch of the keys has been greatly lightened by making the keys open air-valves or complete electric circuits which actuate the mechanism for pulling down the pallets. The stops, pedals, and couplers also employ "power." Not only are the performer"s muscles spared a lot of heavy work when compressed air and electricity aid him, but he is able to have the _console_, or keyboard, far away from the pipes. "From the console, the player, sitting with the singers, or in any desirable part of the choir or chancel, would be able to command the working of the whole of the largest organ situated afar at the western end of the nave; would draw each stop in complete reliance on the sliders and the sound-board fulfilling their office; ... and--marvel of it all--the player, using the swell pedal in his ordinary manner, would obtain crescendo and diminuendo with a more perfect effect than by the old way."[31]
In cathedrals it is no uncommon thing for the different sound-boards to be placed in positions far apart, so that to the uninitiated there may appear to be several independent organs scattered about. Yet all are absolutely under the control of a man who is sitting away from them all, but connected with them by a number of tubes or wires.
The largest organ in the world is that in the Town Hall, Sydney. It has a hundred and twenty-six speaking stops, five manuals, fourteen couplers, and forty-six combination studs. The pipes, about 8,000 in number, range from the enormous 64-foot contra-trombone to some only a fraction of an inch in length. The organ occupies a s.p.a.ce 85 feet long and 26 feet deep.
HUMAN REEDS.
The most wonderful of all musical reeds is found in the human throat, in the anatomical part called the _larynx_, situated at the top of the _trachea_, or windpipe.
Slip a piece of rubber tubing over the end of a pipe, allowing an inch or so to project. Take the free part of the tube by two opposite points between the first fingers and thumbs and pull it until the edges are stretched tight. Now blow through it. The wind, forcing its way between the two rubber edges, causes them and the air inside the tube to vibrate, and a musical note results. The more you strain the rubber the higher is the note.
The larynx works on this principle. The windpipe takes the place of the gla.s.s pipe; the two vocal cords represent the rubber edges; and the _arytenoid muscles_ stand instead of the hands. When contracted, these muscles bring the edges of the cords nearer to one another, stretch the cords, and shorten the cords. A person gifted with a "very good ear"
can, it has been calculated, adjust the length of the vocal cords to 1/17000th of an inch!
Simultaneously with the adjustment of the cords is effected the adjustment of the length of the windpipe, so that the column of air in it may be of the right length to vibrate in unison. Here again is seen a wonderful provision of nature.
The resonance of the mouth cavity is also of great importance. By altering the shape of the mouth the various harmonics of any fundamental note produced by the larynx are rendered prominent, and so we get the different vocal sounds. Helmholtz has shown that the fundamental tone of any note is represented by the sound _oo_. If the mouth is adjusted to bring out the octave of the fundamental, _o_ results. _a_ is produced by accentuating the second harmonic, the twelfth; _ee_ by developing the second and fourth harmonics; while for _ah_ the fifth and seventh must be prominent.
When we whistle we transform the lips into a reed and the mouth into a pipe. The tension of the lips and the shape of the mouth cavity decide the note. The lips are also used as a reed for blowing the flute, piccolo, and all the bra.s.s band instruments of the cornet order. In blowing a coach-horn the various harmonics of the fundamental note are brought out by altering the lip tension and the wind pressure. A cornet is practically a coach-horn rolled up into a convenient shape and furnished with three keys, the depression of which puts extra lengths of tubing in connection with the main tube--in fact, makes it longer. One key lowers the fundamental note of the horn half a tone; the second, a full tone; the third, a tone and a half. If the first and third are pressed down together, the note sinks two tones; if the second and third, two and a half tones; and simultaneous depression of all three gives a drop of three tones. The performer thus has seven possible fundamental notes, and several harmonics of each of these at his command; so that by a proper manipulation of the keys he can run up the chromatic scale.
We should add that the cornet tube is an "open" pipe. So is that of the flute. The clarionet is a "stopped" pipe.
[29] It is obvious that in Fig. 136, _2_, a pulse will pa.s.s from A to B and back in one-third the time required for it to pa.s.s from A to B and back in Fig. 136, _1_.
[30] The science of hearing; from the Greek verb, [Greek: akouein], "to hear."
[31] "Organs and Tuning," p. 245.
Chapter XVI.
TALKING-MACHINES.
The phonograph--The recorder--The reproducer--The gramophone--The making of records--Cylinder records--Gramophone records.
In the Patent Office Museum at South Kensington is a curious little piece of machinery--a metal cylinder mounted on a long axle, which has at one end a screw thread chased along it. The screw end rotates in a socket with a thread of equal pitch cut in it. To the other end is attached a handle. On an upright near the cylinder is mounted a sort of drum. The membrane of the drum carries a needle, which, when the membrane is agitated by the air-waves set up by human speech, digs into a sheet of tinfoil wrapped round the cylinder, pressing it into a helical groove turned on the cylinder from end to end. This construction is the first phonograph ever made. Thomas Edison, the "wizard of the West," devised it in 1876; and from this rude parent have descended the beautiful machines which record and reproduce human speech and musical sounds with startling accuracy.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 146.--The "governor" of a phonograph.]
We do not propose to trace here the development of the talking-machine; nor will it be necessary to describe in detail its mechanism, which is probably well known to most readers, or could be mastered in a very short time on personal examination. We will content ourselves with saying that the wax cylinder of the phonograph, or the ebonite disc of the gramophone, is generally rotated by clockwork concealed in the body of the machine. The speed of rotation has to be very carefully governed, in order that the record may revolve under the reproducing point at a uniform speed. The principle of the governor commonly used appears in Fig. 146. The last pinion of the clockwork train is mounted on a shaft carrying two triangular plates, A and C, to which are attached three short lengths of flat steel spring with a heavy ball attached to the centre of each. A is fixed; C moves up the shaft as the b.a.l.l.s fly out, and pulls with it the disc D, which rubs against the pad P (on the end of a spring) and sets up sufficient friction to slow the clockwork. The limit rate is regulated by screw S.
THE PHONOGRAPH.
Though the recording and reproducing apparatus of a phonograph gives very wonderful results, its construction is quite simple. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that an immense amount of experimenting has been devoted to finding out the most suitable materials and forms for the parts.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 147.--Section of an Edison Bell phonograph recorder.]
The _recorder_ (Fig. 147) is a little circular box about one and a half inches in diameter.[32] From the top a tube leads to the horn. The bottom is a circular plate, C C, hinged at one side. This plate supports a gla.s.s disc, D, about 1/150th of an inch thick, to which is attached the cutting stylus--a tiny sapphire rod with a cup-shaped end having very sharp edges. Sound-waves enter the box through the horn tube; but instead of being allowed to fill the whole box, they are concentrated by the shifting nozzle N on to the centre of the gla.s.s disc through the hole in C C. You will notice that N has a ball end, and C C a socket to fit N exactly, so that, though C C and N move up and down very rapidly, they still make perfect contact. The disc is vibrated by the sound-impulses, and drives the cutting point down into the surface of the wax cylinder, turning below it in a clockwork direction. The only dead weight pressing on S is that of N, C C, and the gla.s.s diaphragm.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 148.--Perspective view of a phonograph recorder.]
As the cylinder revolves, the recorder is shifted continuously along by a leading screw having one hundred or more threads to the inch cut on it, so that it traces a continuous helical groove from one end of the wax cylinder to the other. This groove is really a series of very minute indentations, not exceeding 1/1000th of an inch in depth.[33] Seen under a microscope, the surface of the record is a succession of hills and valleys, some much larger than others (Fig. 151, _a_). A loud sound causes the stylus to give a vigorous dig, while low sounds scarcely move it at all. The wonderful thing about this sound-recording is, that not only are the fundamental tones of musical notes impressed, but also the harmonics, which enable us to decide at once whether the record is one of a cornet, violin, or banjo performance. Furthermore, if several instruments are playing simultaneously near the recorder"s horn, the stylus catches all the different shades of tone of every note of a chord. There are, so to speak, minor hills and valleys cut in the slopes of the main hills and valleys.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 149.--Section of the reproducer of an Edison Bell phonograph.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 150.--Perspective view of a phonograph reproducer.]
The _reproducer_ (Fig. 149) is somewhat more complicated than the recorder. As before, we have a circular box communicating with the horn of the instrument. A thin gla.s.s disc forms a bottom to the box. It is held in position between rubber rings, R R, by a screw collar, C. To the centre is attached a little eye, from which hangs a link, L. Pivoted at P from one edge of the box is a _floating weight_, having a circular opening immediately under the eye. The link pa.s.ses through this to the left end of a tiny lever, which rocks on a pivot projecting from the weight. To the right end of the lever is affixed a sapphire bar, or stylus, with a ball end of a diameter equal to that of the cutting point of the recorder. The floating weight presses the stylus against the record, and also keeps the link between the rocking lever of the gla.s.s diaphragm in a state of tension. Every blow given to the stylus is therefore transmitted by the link to the diaphragm, which vibrates and sends an air-impulse into the horn. As the impulses are given at the same rate as those which agitated the diaphragm of the recorder, the sounds which they represent are accurately reproduced, even to the harmonics of a musical note.
THE GRAMOPHONE.
This effects the same purpose as the phonograph, but in a somewhat different manner. The phonograph recorder digs vertically downwards into the surface of the record, whereas the stylus of the gramophone wags from side to side and describes a snaky course (Fig. 151_b_). It makes no difference in talking-machines whether the reproducing stylus be moved sideways or vertically by the record, provided that motion is imparted by it to the diaphragm.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 151_a._]