[3] Also called _ports_.
[4] The bores of the cylinders are in the proportion of 4: 6: 9. The stroke of all three is the same.
[5] The ends furthest from the eccentric.
[6] "The Locomotive of To-day," p. 87.
Chapter III.
THE STEAM TURBINE.
How a turbine works--The De Laval turbine--The Parsons turbine--Description of the Parsons turbine--The expansive action of steam in a Parsons turbine--Balancing the thrust--Advantages of the marine turbine.
More than two thousand years ago Hero of Alexandria produced the first apparatus to which the name of steam-engine could rightly be given. Its principle was practically the same as that of the revolving jet used to sprinkle lawns during dry weather, steam being used in the place of water. From the top of a closed cauldron rose two vertical pipes, which at their upper ends had short, right-angle bends. Between them was hung a hollow globe, pivoted on two short tubes projecting from its sides into the upright tubes. Two little L-shaped pipes projected from opposite sides of the globe, at the ends of a diameter, in a plane perpendicular to the axis. On fire being applied to the cauldron, steam was generated. It pa.s.sed up through the upright, through the pivots, and into the globe, from which it escaped by the two L-shaped nozzles, causing rapid revolution of the ball. In short, the first steam-engine was a turbine. Curiously enough, we have reverted to this primitive type (scientifically developed, of course) in the most modern engineering practice.
HOW A TURBINE WORKS.
In reciprocating--that is, cylinder--engines steam is admitted into a chamber and the door shut behind it, as it were. As it struggles to expand, it forces out one of the confining walls--that is, the piston--and presently the door opens again, and allows it to escape when it has done its work. In Hero"s toy the impact of the issuing molecules against other molecules that have already emerged from the pipes was used. One may compare the reaction to that exerted by a thrown stone on the thrower. If the thrower is standing on skates, the reaction of the stone will cause him to glide backwards, just as if he had pushed off from some fixed object. In the case of the _reaction_--namely, the Hero-type--turbine the nozzle from which the steam or water issues moves, along with bodies to which it may be attached. In _action_ turbines steam is led through fixed nozzles or steam-ways, and the momentum of the steam is brought to bear on the surfaces of movable bodies connected with the shaft.
THE DE LAVAL TURBINE.
In its earliest form this turbine was a modification of Hero"s. The wheel was merely a pipe bent in S form, attached at its centre to a hollow vertical shaft supplied with steam through a stuffing-box at one extremity. The steam blew out tangentially from the ends of the S, causing the shaft to revolve rapidly and work the machinery (usually a cream separator) mounted on it. This motor proved very suitable for dairy work, but was too wasteful of steam to be useful where high power was needed.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 36.--The wheel and nozzles of a De Laval turbine.]
In the De Laval turbine as now constructed the steam is blown from stationary nozzles against vanes mounted on a revolving wheel. Fig. 36 shows the nozzles and a turbine wheel. The wheel is made as a solid disc, to the circ.u.mference of which the vanes are dovetailed separately in a single row. Each vane is of curved section, the concave side directed towards the nozzles, which, as will be gathered from the "transparent" specimen on the right of our ill.u.s.tration, gradually expand towards the mouth. This is to allow the expansion of the steam, and a consequent gain of velocity. As it issues, each molecule strikes against the concave face of a vane, and, while changing its direction, is robbed of its kinetic energy, which pa.s.ses to the wheel. To turn once more to a stone-throwing comparison, it is as if a boy were pelting the wheel with an enormous number of tiny stones. Now, escaping high-pressure steam moves very fast indeed. To give figures, if it enters the small end of a De Laval nozzle at 200 lbs. per square inch, it will leave the big end at a velocity of 48 miles per _minute_--that is, at a speed which would take it right round the world in 8-1/2 hours!
The wheel itself would not move at more than about one-third of this speed as a maximum.[7] But even so, it may make as many as 30,000 revolutions per minute. A mechanical difficulty is now encountered--namely, that arising from vibration. No matter how carefully the turbine wheel may be balanced, it is practically impossible to make its centre of gravity coincide exactly with the central point of the shaft; in other words, the wheel will be a bit--perhaps only a tiny fraction of an ounce--heavier on one side than the other. This want of truth causes vibration, which, at the high speed mentioned, would cause the shaft to knock the bearings in which it revolves to pieces, if--and this is the point--those bearings were close to the wheel M. de Laval mounted the wheel on a shaft long enough between the bearings to "whip," or bend a little, and the difficulty was surmounted.
The normal speed of the turbine wheel is too high for direct driving of some machinery, so it is reduced by means of gearing. To dynamos, pumps, and air-fans it is often coupled direct.
THE PARSONS TURBINE.
At the grand naval review held in 1897 in honour of Queen Victoria"s diamond jubilee, one of the most noteworthy sights was the little _Turbinia_ of 44-1/2 tons burthen, which darted about among the floating forts at a speed much surpa.s.sing that of the fastest "destroyer." Inside the nimble little craft were engines developing 2,000 horse power, without any of the clank and vibration which usually reigns in the engine-room of a high-speed vessel. The _Turbinia_ was the first turbine-driven boat, and as such, even apart from her extraordinary pace, she attracted great attention. Since 1897 the Parsons turbine has been installed on many ships, including several men-of-war, and it seems probable that the time is not far distant when reciprocating engines will be abandoned on all high-speed craft.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PARSONS TURBINE.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 37.--Section of a Parsons turbine.]
The essential parts of a Parsons turbine are:--(1) The shaft, on which is mounted (2) the drum; (3) the cylindrical casing inside which the drum revolves; (4) the vanes on the drum and casing; (5) the balance pistons. Fig. 37 shows a diagrammatic turbine in section. The drum, it will be noticed, increases its diameter in three stages, D^1, D^2, D^3, towards the right. From end to end it is studded with little vanes, M M, set in parallel rings small distances apart. Each vane has a curved section (see Fig. 38), the hollow side facing towards the left.
The vanes stick out from the drum like short spokes, and their outer ends almost touch the casing. To the latter are attached equally-s.p.a.ced rings of fixed vanes, F F, pointing inwards towards the drum, and occupying the intervals between the rings of moving vanes. Their concave sides also face towards the left, but, as seen in Fig. 38, their line of curve lies the reverse way to that of M M. Steam enters the casing at A, and at once rushes through the vanes towards the outlet at B. It meets the first row of fixed vanes, and has its path so deflected that it strikes the ring of moving (or drum) vanes at the most effective angle, and pushes them round. It then has its direction changed by the ring of F F, so that it may treat the next row of M M in a similar fashion.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 38.--Blades or vanes of a Parsons turbine.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: One of the low-pressure turbines of the _Carmania_, in casing. Its size will be inferred from comparison with the man standing near the end of the casing.]
THE EXPANSIVE ACTION OF STEAM IN A TURBINE.
On reaching the end of D^1 it enters the second, or intermediate, set of vanes. The drum here is of a greater diameter, and the blades are longer and set somewhat farther apart, to give a freer pa.s.sage to the now partly expanded steam, which has lost pressure but gained velocity.
The process of movement is repeated through this stage; and again in D^3, the low-pressure drum. The steam then escapes to the condenser through B, having by this time expanded very many times; and it is found advisable, for reasons explained in connection with compound steam-engines, to have a separate turbine in an independent casing for the extreme stages of expansion.
The vanes are made of bra.s.s. In the turbines of the _Carmania_, the huge Cunard liner, 1,115,000 vanes are used. The largest diameter of the drums is 11 feet, and each low-pressure turbine weighs 350 tons.
BALANCING OF THRUST.
The push exerted by the steam on the blades not only turns the drum, but presses it in the direction in which the steam flows. This end thrust is counterbalanced by means of the "dummy" pistons, P^1, P^2, P^3.
Each dummy consists of a number of discs revolving between rings projecting from the casing, the distance between discs and rings being so small that but little steam can pa.s.s. In the high-pressure compartment the steam pushes P^1 to the left with the same pressure as it pushes the blades of D^1 to the right. After completing the first stage it fills the pa.s.sage C, which communicates with the second piston, P^2, and the pressure on that piston negatives the thrust on D^2.
Similarly, the pa.s.sage E causes the steam to press equally on P^3 and the vanes of D^3. So that the bearings in which the shaft revolves have but little thrust to take. This form of compensation is necessary in marine as well as in stationary turbines. In the former the dummy pistons are so proportioned that the forward thrust given by them and the screw combined is almost equal to the thrust aft of the moving vanes.
[Ill.u.s.tration: One of the turbine drums of the _Carmania_. Note the rows of vanes. The drum is here being tested for perfect balance on two absolutely level supports.]
ADVANTAGES OF THE MARINE TURBINE.
(1.) Absence of vibration. Reciprocating engines, however well balanced, cause a shaking of the whole ship which is very unpleasant to pa.s.sengers. The turbine, on the other hand, being almost perfectly balanced, runs so smoothly at the highest speeds that, if the hand be laid on the covering, it is sometimes almost impossible to tell whether the machinery is in motion. As a consequence of this smooth running there is little noise in the engine-room--a pleasant contrast to the deafening roar of reciprocating engines. (2.) Turbines occupy less room.
(3.) They are more easily tended. (4.) They require fewer repairs, since the rubbing surfaces are very small as compared to those of reciprocating engines. (5.) They are more economical at high speeds. It must be remembered that a turbine is essentially meant for high speeds.
If run slowly, the steam will escape through the many pa.s.sages without doing much work.
Owing to its construction, a turbine cannot be reversed like a cylinder engine. It therefore becomes necessary to fit special astern turbines to one or more of the screw shafts, for use when the ship has to be stopped or moved astern. Under ordinary conditions these turbines revolve idly in their cases.
The highest speed ever attained on the sea was the forty-two miles per hour of the unfortunate _Viper_, a turbine destroyer which developed 11,500 horse power, though displacing only 370 tons. This velocity would compare favourably with that of a good many expresses on certain railways that we could name. In the future thirty miles an hour will certainly be attained by turbine-driven liners.
[7] Even at this speed the wheel has a circ.u.mferential velocity of two-thirds that of a bullet shot from a Lee-Metford rifle. A vane weighing only 250 grains (about 1/2 oz.) exerts under these conditions a centrifugal pull of 15 cwt. on the wheel!
Chapter IV.
THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE.
The meaning of the term--Action of the internal-combustion engine--The motor car--The starting-handle--The engine--The carburetter--Ignition of the charge--Advancing the spark--Governing the engine--The clutch--The gear-box--The compensating gear--The silencer--The brakes--Speed of cars.
THE MEANING OF THE TERM "INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE."
In the case of a steam-boiler the energy of combustion is transmitted to water inside an air-tight vessel. The fuel does not actually touch the "working fluid." In the gas or oil engine the fuel is brought into contact and mixed with the working fluid, which is air. It combines suddenly with it in the cylinder, and heat energy is developed so rapidly that the act is called an explosion. Coal gas, mineral oils, alcohol, petrol, etc., all contain hydrogen and carbon. If air, which contributes oxygen, be added to any of these in due proportion, the mixture becomes highly explosive. On a light being applied, oxygen and carbon unite, also hydrogen and oxygen, and violent heat is generated, causing a violent molecular bombardment of the sides of the vessel containing the mixture. Now, if the mixture be _compressed_ it becomes hotter and hotter, until a point is reached at which it ignites spontaneously. Early gas-engines did not compress the charge before ignition. Alphonse Beau de Rochas, a Frenchman, first thought of making the piston of the engine squeeze the mixture before ignition; and from the year 1862, when he proposed this innovation, the success of the internal-combustion engine may be said to date.